Vehicular traffic surveillance and road lane detection using radar interferometry

Speed enforcement on public roadways is an important issue in order to guarantee road security and to reduce the number and seriousness of traffic accidents. Traditionally, this task has been partially solved using radar and/or laser technologies and, more recently, using video-camera based systems. All these systems have significant shortcomings that have yet to be overcome. The main drawback of classical Doppler radar technology is that the velocity measurement fails when several vehicles are in the radars beam. Modern radar systems are able to measure speed and range between vehicle and radar. However, this is not enough to discriminate the lane where the vehicle is driving on. The limitation of several vehicles in the beam is overcome using laser technology. However, laser systems have another important limitation: They cannot measure the speed of several vehicles simultaneously. Novel video-camera systems, based on license plate identification, solve the previous drawbacks, but they have the problem that they can only measure average speed but never top-speed. This paper studies the feasibility of using an interferometric linear frequency modulated continuous wave radar to improve top-speed enforcement on roadways. Two different systems based on down-the-road and across-the-road radar configurations are presented. The main advantage of the proposed solutions is they can simultaneously measure speed, range, and lane of several vehicles, allowing the univocal identification of the offenders. A detailed analysis about the operation and accuracy of these solutions is reported. In addition, the feasibility of the proposed techniques has been demonstrated with simulations and real experiments using a Ka-band interferometric radar developed by our research group.

Reflectance anisotropy spectroscopy assessment of the MOVPE nucleation of GaInP on Germanium (100)

This work summarizes the observations made on the variation and time evolution of the reflectanceanisotropy signal during the MOVPE growth of GaInPnucleation layers on Germanium substrates. This in situ monitoring tool is used to assess the impact of different nucleation routines and reactor conditions on the quality of the layers grown. This comparison is carried out by establishing a correlation between reflectanceanisotropy signature at 2.1 eV and the morphology of the epilayers evaluated by atomic force microscopy (AFM). This paper outlines the potential of reflectanceanisotropy to predict, explore, and therefore optimize, the best growth conditions that lead to a high quality III–V epilayer on a Ge substrate

Internal quantum efficiency of III-nitride quantum dot superlattices grown by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy

We present a study of the optical properties of GaN/AlN and InGaN/GaN quantum dot (QD) superlattices grown via plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy, as compared to their quantum well (QW) counterparts. The three-dimensional/two-dimensional nature of the structures has been verified using atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The QD superlattices present higher internal quantum efficiency as compared to the respective QWs as a result of the three-dimensional carrier localization in the islands. In the QW samples, photoluminescence (PL) measurements point out a certain degree of carrier localization due to structural defects or thickness fluctuations, which is more pronounced in InGaN/GaN QWs due to alloy inhomogeneity. In the case of the QD stacks, carrier localization on potential fluctuations with a spatial extension smaller than the QD size is observed only for the InGaN QD-sample with the highest In content (peak emission around 2.76 eV). These results confirm the efficiency of the QD three-dimensional confinement in circumventing the potential fluctuations related to structural defects or alloy inhomogeneity. PL excitation measurements demonstrate efficient carrier transfer from the wetting layer to the QDs in the GaN/AlN system, even for low QD densities (~1010 cm-3). In the case of InGaN/GaN QDs, transport losses in the GaN barriers cannot be discarded, but an upper limit to these losses of 15% is deduced from PL measurements as a function of the excitation wavelength.

High quality InAlN single layers lattice-matched to GaN grown by molecular beam epitaxy

We report on properties of high quality ~60 nm thick InAlN layers nearly in-plane lattice-matched to GaN, grown on c-plane GaN-on-sapphire templates by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy. Excellent crystalline quality and low surface roughness are confirmed by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. High annular dark field observations reveal a periodic in-plane indium content variation (8 nm period), whereas optical measurements evidence certain residual absorption below the band-gap. The indium fluctuation is estimated to be +/- 1.2% around the nominal 17% indium content via plasmon energy oscillations assessed by electron energy loss spectroscopy with sub-nanometric spatial resolution.

Nanoindentation of Bridgman YBCO samples

In this study, the mechanical properties of YBa2Cu3O7−x, obtained by the Bridgman technique, were examined using a Berkovich tip indenter on the basal plane (0 0 1). Intrinsic hardness was measured by nanoindentation tests and corrected using the Nix and Gao model for this material. Furthermore, Vickers hardness tests were performed, in order to determine the possible size effect on these measurements. The results showed an underestimation of the hardness value when the tests were performed with large loads. Moreover, the elastic modulus of the Bridgman samples was 128 ± 5 GPa. Different residual imprints were visualised by atomic force microscopy and a focused ion beam, in order to observe superficial and internal fracturing. Mechanical properties presented a considerable reduction at the interface. This effect could be attributed to internal stress generated during the texturing process. In order to corroborate this hypothesis, an observation using transmission electron microscopy was performed.

Impact of N2 plasma power and duration on AlGaN/GaN HEMT

urface treatments have been recently shown to play an active role in electrical characteristics in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs, in particular during the passivation processing [1-4]. However, the responsible mechanisms are partially unknown and further studies are demanding. The effects of power and time N2 plasma pre-treatment prior to SiN deposition using PE-CVD (plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition) on GaN and AlGaN/GaN HEMT have been investigated. The low power (60 W) plasma pre-treatment was found to improve the electronic characteristics in GaN based HEMT devices, independently of the time duration up to 20 min. In contrast, high power (150 and 210 W) plasma pretreatment showed detrimental effects in the electronic properties (Fig. 1), increasing the sheet resistance of the 2DEG, decreasing the 2DEG charge density in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs, transconductance reduction and decreasing the fT and fmax values up to 40% respect to the case using 60 W N2 plasma power. Although AFM (atomic force microscopy) results showed AlGaN and GaN surface roughness is not strongly affected by the N2-plasma, KFM (Kelvin force microscopy) surface analysis shows significant changes in the surface potential, trending to increase its values as the plasma power is higher. The whole results point at energetic ions inducing polarization-charge changes that affect dramatically to the 2-DEG charge density and the final characteristics of the HEMT devices. Therefore, we conclude that AlGaN surface is strongly sensitive to N2 plasma power conditions, which turn to be a key factor to achieve a good surface preparation prior to SiN passivation.

Implementación de instrumentación virtual con LaBVIEW

El objetivo del PFC es el diseño e implementación de una aplicación que funcione como osciloscopio, analizador de espectro y generador de funciones virtual, todo dentro de la misma aplicacion. Mediante una tarjeta de adquisición de datos tomaremos muestras de señales del mundo real (sistema analógico) para generar datos que puedan ser manipulados por un ordenador (sistema digital). Con esta misma tarjeta también se podrán generar señales básicas, tales como señales senoidales, cuadradas.... y además se ha añadido la funcionalidad de generar señales moduladas en frecuencia, señales tipo Chirp (usadas comúnmente tanto en aplicaciones sonar y radar, como en transmisión óptica) o PRN (ruido pseudo-aleatorio que consta de una secuencia determinista de pulsos que se repite cada periodo, usada comúnmente en receptores GPS), como también señales ampliamente conocidas como el ruido blanco Gaussiano o el ruido blanco uniforme. La aplicación mostrará con detalle las señales adquiridas y analizará de diversas maneras esas señales. Posee la función de enventanado de los tipos de ventana mas comunes, respuesta en frecuencia, transformada de Fourier, etc. La configuración es elegida por el usuario en un entorno amigable y de visualización atractiva. The objective of the PFC is the design and implementation of an application that works as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer and virtual signal generator, all within the same application. Through a data acquisition card, the user can take samples of real-world signals (analog system) to generate data that can be manipulated by a computer (digital system). This same card can also generate basic signals, such as sine waves, square waves, sawtooth waves.... and further has added other functionalities as frequency modulated signals generation, Chirp signals type generation (commonly used in both sonar and radar applications, such as optical transmission) or PRN (pseudo-random noise sequence comprising a deterministic pulse that repeats every period, commonly used in GPS receivers). It also can generate widely known as Gaussian white noise signals or white noise uniform signals. The application will show in detail the acquired signals and will analyze these signals in different ways selected by the user. Windowing function has the most common window types, frequency response, Fourier transform are examples of what kind of analyzing that can be processed. The configuration is chosen by the user throught friendly and attractive displays and panels.

Impact of N2 plasma power discharge on AlGaN/GaN HEMT performance

The effects of power and time conditions of in situ N2 plasma treatment, prior to silicon nitride (SiN) passivation, were investigated on an AlGaN/GaN high-electron mobility transistor (HEMT). These studies reveal that N2 plasma power is a critical parameter to control the SiN/AlGaN interface quality, which directly affects the 2-D electron gas density. Significant enhancement in the HEMT characteristics was observed by using a low power N2 plasma pretreatment. In contrast, a marked gradual reduction in the maximum drain-source current density (IDS max) and maximum transconductance (gm max), as well as in fT and fmax, was observed as the N2 plasma power increases (up to 40% decrease for 210 W). Different mechanisms were proposed to be dominant as a function of the discharge power range. A good correlation was observed between the device electrical characteristics and the surface assessment by atomic force microscopy and Kelvin force microscopy techniques.

Nanocrack-induced leakage current in AlInN/AlN/GaN

Here we report on the study of nano-crack formation in Al1−xInxN/AlN/GaN heterostructures, on its association with composition fluctuation and on its local electrical properties. It is shown here that indium segregation at nano-cracks and threading dislocations originating from the non-pseudomorphic AlN interlayer could be the cause of the high reverse-bias gate leakage current of Ni/Au Schottky contacts on Al1−xInxN/AlN/GaN heterostructures and significantly affects the contact rectifying behavior. Segregation of indium around crack tips in Al1−xInxN acting as conductive paths was assessed with conductive atomic force microscopy.

Desarrollo y aplicaciones de radares de alta resolución en bandas milimétricas

Las bandas de las denominadas ondas milimétricas y submilimétricas están situadas en la región del espectro entre las microondas y el infrarrojo. La banda de milimétricas se sitúa entre 30 y 300 GHz, considerada normalmente como la banda EHF (Extremely High Frequency). El margen de frecuencias entre 300 y 3000 GHz es conocido como la banda de ondas submilimétricas o de terahercios (THz). Sin embargo, no toda la comunidad científica está de acuerdo acerca de las frecuencias que limitan la banda de THz. De hecho, 100 GHz y 10 THz son considerados comúnmente como los límites inferior y superior de dicha banda, respectivamente. Hasta hace relativamente pocos años, la banda de THz sólo había sido explotada para aplicaciones en los campos de la espectroscopía y la radioastronomía. Los avances tecnológicos en la electrónica de microondas y la óptica lastraron el desarrollo de la banda de THz. Sin embargo, investigaciones recientes han demostrado las ventajas asociadas a operar en estas longitudes de onda, lo que ha aumentado el interés y los esfuerzos dedicados a la tecnología de THz. A pesar de que han surgido un gran número de aplicaciones, una de las más prometedoras está en el campo de la vigilancia y la seguridad. Esta tesis está dedicada al desarrollo de radares de onda continua y frecuencia modulada (CW-LFM) de alta resolución en la banda de milimétricas, más concretamente, en las ventanas de atenuación situadas en 100 y 300 GHz. Trabajar en estas bandas de frecuencia presenta beneficios tales como la capacidad de las ondas de atravesar ciertos materiales como la ropa o el papel, opacos en el rango visible, y la posibilidad de usar grandes anchos de banda, obteniéndose así elevadas resoluciones en distancia. Los anchos de banda de 9 y 27 GHz seleccionados para los sistemas de 100 y 300 GHz, respectivamente, proporcionan resoluciones en distancia alrededor y por debajo del cm. Por otro lado, las aplicaciones objetivo se centran en la adquisición de imágenes a corto alcance. En el caso del prototipo a 300 GHz, su diseño se ha orientado a aplicaciones de detección a distancia en escenarios de vigilancia y seguridad. La naturaleza no ionizante de esta radiación supone una ventaja frente a las alternativas tradicionalmente usadas tales como los sistemas de rayos X. La presente tesis se centra en el proceso de diseño, implementación y caracterización de ambos sistemas así como de la validación de su funcionamiento. Se ha elegido una solución basada en componentes electrónicos, y no ópticos, debido a su alta fiabilidad, volumen reducido y amplia disponibilidad de componentes comerciales. Durante el proceso de diseño e implementación, se han tenido en cuenta varias directrices tales como la minimización del coste y la versatilidad de los sistemas desarrollados para hacer posible su aplicación para múltiples propósitos. Ambos sistemas se han utilizado en diferentes pruebas experimentales, obteniendo resultados satisfactorios. Aunque son sólo ejemplos dentro del amplio rango de posibles aplicaciones, la adquisición de imágenes ISAR de modelos de blancos a escala para detección automática así como la obtención de datos micro-Range/micro- Doppler para el análisis de patrones humanos han validado el funcionamiento del sistema a 100 GHz. Por otro lado, varios ejemplos de imágenes 3D obtenidas a 300 GHz han demostrado las capacidades del sistema para su uso en tareas de seguridad y detección a distancia. ABSTRACT The millimeter- and submillimeter-wave bands are the regions of the spectrum between the microwaves and the infrared (IR). The millimeter-wave band covers the range of the spectrum from 30 to 300 GHz, which is usually considered as the extremely high frequency (EHF) band. The range of frequencies between 300 and 3000 GHz is known as the submillimeter-wave or terahertz (THz) band. Nevertheless, the boundaries of the THz band are not accepted by the whole research community. In fact, 100 GHz and 10 THz are often considered by some authors as the lower and upper limit of this band, respectively. Until recently, the THz band had not been exploited for practical applications, with the exception of minor uses in the fields of spectroscopy and radio astronomy. The advancements on microwave electronics and optical technology left the well-known THz gap undeveloped. However, recent research has unveiled the advantages of working at these frequencies, which has motivated the increase in research effort devoted to THz technology. Even though the range of upcoming applications is wide, the most promising ones are in the field of security and surveillance. Particularly, this Ph.D. thesis deals with the development of high resolution continuouswave linear-frequency modulated (CW-LFM) radars in the millimeter-wave band, namely, in the attenuation windows located at 100 and 300 GHz. Working at these wavelengths presents several benefits such as the ability of radiation to penetrate certain materials, visibly opaque, and the great availability of bandwidth at these frequencies, which leads to high range resolution. The selected bandwidths of 9 and 27 GHz for these systems at 100 and 300 GHz, respectively, result in cm and sub-cm range resolution. On the other hand, the intended applications are in the field of short-range imaging. In particular, the design of the 300-GHz prototype is oriented to standoff detection for security and surveillance scenarios. The non-ionizing nature of this radiation allows safety concerns to be alleviated, in clear contrast to other traditional alternatives such as X-rays systems. This thesis is focused on the design, implementation and characterization process of both systems as well as the experimental assessment of their performances. An electronic approach has been selected instead of an optical solution so as to take advantage of its high reliability, reduced volume and the availability of commercial components. Through the whole design and implementation process, several guidelines such as low cost and hardware versatility have been also kept in mind. Taking advantage of that versatility, different applications can be carried out with the same hardware concept. Both radar systems have been used in several experimental trials with satisfactory results. Despite being mere examples within the wide range of fields of application, ISAR imaging of scaled model targets for automatic target recognition and micro-Range/micro-Doppler analysis of human patterns have validated the system performance at 100 GHz. In addition, 3D imaging examples at 300 GHz demonstrate the radar system’s capabilities for standoff detection and security tasks.

Influence of PH3 exposure on silicon substrate morphology in the MOVPE growth of III-V on silicon multijunction solar cells

Dual-junction solar cells formed by a GaAsP or GaInP top cell and a silicon bottom cell seem to be attractive candidates to materialize the long sought-for integration of III-V materials on silicon for photovoltaic applications. One of the first issues to be considered in the development of this structure will be the strategy to create the silicon emitter of the bottom subcell. In this study, we explore the possibility of forming the silicon emitter by phosphorus diffusion (i.e. exposing the wafer to PH3 in a MOVPE reactor) and still obtain good surface morphologies to achieve a successful III-V heteroepitaxy as occurs in conventional III-V on germanium solar cell technology. Consequently, we explore the parameter space (PH3 partial pressure, time and temperature) that is needed to create optimized emitter designs and assess the impact of such treatments on surface morphology using atomic force microscopy. Although a strong degradation of surface morphology caused by prolonged exposure of silicon to PH3 is corroborated, it is also shown that subsequent anneals under H-2 can recover silicon surface morphology and minimize its RMS roughness and the presence of pits and spikes.

Desarrollo de un procedimiento para la observación y caracterización mecánica de células sobre sustratos opacos mediante microscopía de fuerzas atómicas : aplicación al estudio de linfocitos

Las células en los tejidos biológicos están continuamente sometidas a estímulos físicos tales como la presión hidrostática y esfuerzos de tracción, compresión o cortante, entre otros. La importancia de los estímulos mecánicos en el comportamiento de las células se ha reconocido recientemente al comprobarse cómo la naturaleza de estas fuerzas puede cambiar en patologías tales como las enfermedades vasculares o el cáncer. En respuesta a estos cambios, las células reaccionan modificando desde su forma o aspecto hasta su ciclo celular. Consecuentemente, el interés por el comportamiento mecánico de las células ha experimentado un auge creciente que ha requerido el desarrollo de varias técnicas de caracterización. En este contexto, se puede afirmar que una de las técnicas que ha irrumpido con más fuerza en esta nueva área, situada entre el mundo biológico y el físico, es la microscopía de fuerza atómica. En esta Tesis se ha abordado el estudio mediante microscopía de fuerza atómica de linfocitos de ratón que constituyen un linaje celular especialmente difícil de caracterizar mediante esta técnica por su tamaño y naturaleza no adherente. Los linfocitos, como actores fundamentales del sistema inmune, tienen gran importancia en la determinación de la respuesta que un organismo desencadena ante la presencia de un biomaterial. Bajo esta premisa, y como condición previa a la caracterización de los linfocitos, ha sido necesario el desarrollo de una metodología robusta y de amplia aplicabilidad que permita el estudio de células sobre biomateriales. Finalmente y con el objetivo de correlacionar el comportamiento mecánico de los linfocitos con alguna característica fisiológica relevante, se ha analizado la hipótesis de que el comportamiento mecánico pueda ser utilizado como marcador de la edad biológica. Consecuentemente se ha abordado el estudio del comportamiento mecánico de los linfocitos clasificados por grupos de edad, de manera que se han obtenido los primeros resultados que indican cómo puede manifestarse el proceso de inmunosenescencia -depresión del sistema inmune relacionada con el envejecimiento- en el comportamiento mecánico de las células del sistema inmune. Cells within tissues are continuously exposed to physical forces including hydrostatic pressure, shear stress, and compression and tension forces. The relevance of these mechanical stimuli has recently been recognised by different works in which significant changes were observed in these forces when they were measued in individuals affected by cardiovasvular diseases or cancer. Cells may alter their orientation, shape, internal constitution, contract, migrate, adhere, modify the synthesis and degradation of extracellular constituents, or even their life cycle in response to perturbations in their mechanical environment. As a consequence of this, the attention in cell mechanical behavior has undergone a significant thrust and novel techniques have been developed. In this context, atomic force microscopy has become a basic tool for the progress of this field. In this Thesis, the mechanical behavior of living murine T-lymphocytes was assessed by atomic force microscopy. Lymphocytes play a main role in the immune system of the individual and, consequently, in the immune response triggered by the presence of a biomaterial. The observation and characterization of the lymphocytes required the development of a robust experimental procedure that allowed overcoming the difficulties related to the analysis of this cell lineage, in particular their relatively large size and non-adherent character. These procedures could be easily transferred to other non-adherent cell lineages. Finally, to check the viability of developed method, we study the lymphocyte mechanical behavior as a function of the murine ageing. The obtained data represent a first step in the knowledge about how mechanical stimuli can affect the age-dependent decrease in immunological competence, i.e., the immunosenescence.

CMOS integration of AlN based piezoelectric microcantilevers

El gran crecimiento de los sistemas MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) así como su presencia en la mayoría de los dispositivos que usamos diariamente despertó nuestro interés. Paralelamente, la tecnología CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) es la tecnología más utilizada para la fabricación de circuitos integrados. Además de ventajas relacionadas con el funcionamiento electrónico del dispositivo final, la integración de sistemas MEMS en la tecnología CMOS reduce significantemente los costes de fabricación. Algunos de los dispositivos MEMS con mayor variedad de aplicaciones son los microflejes. Estos dispositivos pueden ser utilizados para la extracción de energía, en microscopios de fuerza atómica o en sensores, como por ejemplo, para biodetección. Los materiales piezoeléctricos más comúnmente utilizados en aplicaciones MEMS se sintetizan a altas temperaturas y por lo tanto no son compatibles con la tecnología CMOS. En nuestro caso hemos usado nitruro de alumino (AlN), que se deposita a temperatura ambiente y es compatible con la tecnología CMOS. Además, es biocompatible, y por tanto podría formar parte de un dispositivo que actúe como biosensor. A lo largo de esta tesis hemos prestado especial atención en desarrollar un proceso de fabricación rápido, reproducible y de bajo coste. Para ello, todos los pasos de fabricación han sido minuciosamente optimizados. Los parámetros de sputtering para depositar el AlN, las distintas técnicas y recetas de ataque, los materiales que actúan como electrodos o las capas sacrificiales para liberar los flejes son algunos de los factores clave estudiados en este trabajo. Una vez que la fabricación de los microflejes de AlN ha sido optimizada, fueron medidos para caracterizar sus propiedades piezoeléctricas y finalmente verificar positivamente su viabilidad como dispositivos piezoeléctricos. ABSTRACT The huge growth of MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) as well as their presence in most of our daily used devices aroused our interest on them. At the same time, CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) technology is the most popular technology for integrated circuits. In addition to advantages related with the electronics operation of the final device, the integration of MEMS with CMOS technology reduces the manufacturing costs significantly. Some of the MEMS devices with a wider variety of applications are the microcantilevers. These devices can be used for energy harvesting, in an atomic force microscopes or as sensors, as for example, for biodetection. Most of the piezoelectric materials used for these MEMS applications are synthesized at high temperature and consequently are not compatible with CMOS technology. In our case we have used aluminum nitride (AlN), which is deposited at room temperature and hence fully compatible with CMOS technology. Otherwise, it is biocompatible and and can be used to compose a biosensing device. During this thesis work we have specially focused our attention in developing a high throughput, reproducible and low cost fabrication process. All the manufacturing process steps of have been thoroughly optimized in order to achieve this goal. Sputtering parameters to synthesize AlN, different techniques and etching recipes, electrode material and sacrificial layers are some of the key factors studied in this work to develop the manufacturing process. Once the AlN microcantilevers fabrication was optimized, they were measured to characterize their piezoelectric properties and to successfully check their viability as piezoelectric devices.

Topographical and mechanical characterization of living eukaryotic cells on opaque substrates: development of a general procedure and its application to the study of non-adherent lymphocytes

The mechanical behavior of living murine T-lymphocytes was assessed by atomic force microscopy (AFM). A robust experimental procedure was developed to overcome some features of lymphocytes, in particular their spherical shape and non-adherent character. The procedure included the immobilization of the lymphocytes on amine-functionalized substrates, the use of hydrodynamic effects on the deflection of the AFM cantilever to monitor the approaching, and the use of the jumping mode for obtaining the images. Indentation curves were analyzed according to Hertz's model for contact mechanics. The calculated values of the elastic modulus are consistent both when considering the results obtained from a single lymphocyte and when comparing the curves recorded from cells of different specimens