Comparison of V2IC control with voltage mode and current mode controls for high frequency (MHz) and very fast response applications

High switching frequencies (several MHz) allow the integration of low power DC/DC converters. Although, in theory, a high switching frequency would make possible to implement a conventional Voltage Mode control (VMC) or Peak Current Mode control (PCMC) with very high bandwidth, in practice, parasitic effects and robustness limits the applicability of these control techniques. This paper compares VMC and CMC techniques with the V2IC control. This control is based on two loops. The fast internal loop has information of the output capacitor current and the error voltage, providing fast dynamic response under load and voltage reference steps, while the slow external voltage loop provides accurate steady state regulation. This paper shows the fast dynamic response of the V2IC control under load and output voltage reference steps and its robustness operating with additional output capacitors added by the customer.

On-line measurement of soil properties without direct spectral response in near infrared spectral range

So far, the majority of reports on on-line measurement considered soil properties with direct spectral responses in near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). This work reports on the results of on-line measurement of soil properties with indirect spectral responses, e.g. pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable calcium (Caex) and exchangeable magnesium (Mgex) in one field in Bedfordshire in the UK. The on-line sensor consisted of a subsoiler coupled with an AgroSpec mobile, fibre type, visible and near infrared (vis–NIR) spectrophotometer (tec5 Technology for Spectroscopy, Germany), with a measurement range 305–2200 nm to acquire soil spectra in diffuse reflectance mode. General calibration models for the studied soil properties were developed with a partial least squares regression (PLSR) with one-leave-out cross validation, using spectra measured under non-mobile laboratory conditions of 160 soil samples collected from different fields in four farms in Europe, namely, Czech Republic, Denmark, Netherland and UK. A group of 25 samples independent from the calibration set was used as independent validation set. Higher accuracy was obtained for laboratory scanning as compared to on-line scanning of the 25 independent samples. The prediction accuracy for the laboratory and on-line measurements was classified as excellent/very good for pH (RPD = 2.69 and 2.14 and r2 = 0.86 and 0.78, respectively), and moderately good for CEC (RPD = 1.77 and 1.61 and r2 = 0.68 and 0.62, respectively) and Mgex (RPD = 1.72 and 1.49 and r2 = 0.66 and 0.67, respectively). For Caex, very good accuracy was calculated for laboratory method (RPD = 2.19 and r2 = 0.86), as compared to the poor accuracy reported for the on-line method (RPD = 1.30 and r2 = 0.61). The ability of collecting large number of data points per field area (about 12,800 point per 21 ha) and the simultaneous analysis of several soil properties without direct spectral response in the NIR range at relatively high operational speed and appreciable accuracy, encourage the recommendation of the on-line measurement system for site specific fertilisation.

Photoacoustic effect measurement in aqueous suspensions of gold nanorods caused by low-frequency and low-power near-infrared pulsing laser irradiation

When aqueous suspensions of gold nanorods are irradiated with a pulsing laser (808 nm), pressure waves appear even at low frequencies (pulse repetition rate of 25 kHz). We found that the pressure wave amplitude depends on the dynamics of the phenomenon. For fixed concentration and average laser current intensity, the amplitude of the pressure waves shows a trend of increasing with the pulse slope and the pulse maximum amplitude.We postulate that the detected ultrasonic pressure waves are a sort of shock waves that would be generated at the beginning of each pulse, because the pressure wave amplitude would be the result of the positive interference of all the individual shock waves.

Wide bandwidth envelope trackers with reduced switching frequency for RF power amplifier

El requerimiento de proveer alta frecuencia de datos en los modernos sistema de comunicación inalámbricos resulta en complejas señales moduladas de radio-frequencia (RF) con un gran ancho de banda y alto ratio pico-promedio (PAPR). Para garantizar la linealidad del comportamiento, los amplificadores lineales de potencia comunes funcionan típicamente entre 4 y 10 dB de back-o_ desde la máxima potencia de salida, ocasionando una baja eficiencia del sistema. La eliminación y restauración de la evolvente (EER) y el seguimiento de la evolvente (ET) son dos prometedoras técnicas para resolver el problema de la eficiencia. Tanto en EER como en ET, es complicado diseñar un amplificador de potencia que sea eficiente para señales de RF de alto ancho de banda y alto PAPR. Una propuesta común para los amplificadores de potencia es incluir un convertidor de potencia de muy alta eficiencia operando a frecuencias más altas que el ancho de banda de la señal RF. En este caso, la potencia perdida del convertidor ocasionado por la alta frecuencia desaconseja su práctica cuando el ancho de banda es muy alto. La solución a este problema es el enfoque de esta disertación que presenta dos arquitecturas de amplificador evolvente: convertidor híbrido-serie con una técnica de evolvente lenta y un convertidor multinivel basado en un convertidor reductor multifase con control de tiempo mínimo. En la primera arquitectura, una topología híbrida está compuesta de una convertidor reductor conmutado y un regulador lineal en serie que trabajan juntos para ajustar la tensión de salida para seguir a la evolvente con precisión. Un algoritmo de generación de una evolvente lenta crea una forma de onda con una pendiente limitada que es menor que la pendiente máxima de la evolvente original. La salida del convertidor reductor sigue esa forma de onda en vez de la evolvente original usando una menor frecuencia de conmutación, porque la forma de onda no sólo tiene una pendiente reducida sino también un menor ancho de banda. De esta forma, el regulador lineal se usa para filtrar la forma de onda tiene una pérdida de potencia adicional. Dependiendo de cuánto se puede reducir la pendiente de la evolvente para producir la forma de onda, existe un trade-off entre la pérdida de potencia del convertidor reductor relacionada con la frecuencia de conmutación y el regulador lineal. El punto óptimo referido a la menor pérdida de potencia total del amplificador de evolvente es capaz de identificarse con la ayuda de modelo preciso de pérdidas que es una combinación de modelos comportamentales y analíticos de pérdidas. Además, se analiza el efecto en la respuesta del filtro de salida del convertidor reductor. Un filtro de dampeo paralelo extra es necesario para eliminar la oscilación resonante del filtro de salida porque el convertidor reductor opera en lazo abierto. La segunda arquitectura es un amplificador de evolvente de seguimiento de tensión multinivel. Al contrario que los convertidores que usan multi-fuentes, un convertidor reductor multifase se emplea para generar la tensión multinivel. En régimen permanente, el convertidor reductor opera en puntos del ciclo de trabajo con cancelación completa del rizado. El número de niveles de tensión es igual al número de fases de acuerdo a las características del entrelazamiento del convertidor reductor. En la transición, un control de tiempo mínimo (MTC) para convertidores multifase es novedosamente propuesto y desarrollado para cambiar la tensión de salida del convertidor reductor entre diferentes niveles. A diferencia de controles convencionales de tiempo mínimo para convertidores multifase con inductancia equivalente, el propuesto MTC considera el rizado de corriente por cada fase basado en un desfase fijo que resulta en diferentes esquemas de control entre las fases. La ventaja de este control es que todas las corrientes vuelven a su fase en régimen permanente después de la transición para que la siguiente transición pueda empezar muy pronto, lo que es muy favorable para la aplicación de seguimiento de tensión multinivel. Además, el control es independiente de la carga y no es afectado por corrientes de fase desbalanceadas. Al igual que en la primera arquitectura, hay una etapa lineal con la misma función, conectada en serie con el convertidor reductor multifase. Dado que tanto el régimen permanente como el estado de transición del convertidor no están fuertemente relacionados con la frecuencia de conmutación, la frecuencia de conmutación puede ser reducida para el alto ancho de banda de la evolvente, la cual es la principal consideración de esta arquitectura. La optimización de la segunda arquitectura para más alto anchos de banda de la evolvente es presentada incluyendo el diseño del filtro de salida, la frecuencia de conmutación y el número de fases. El área de diseño del filtro está restringido por la transición rápida y el mínimo pulso del hardware. La rápida transición necesita un filtro pequeño pero la limitación del pulso mínimo del hardware lleva el diseño en el sentido contrario. La frecuencia de conmutación del convertidor afecta principalmente a la limitación del mínimo pulso y a las pérdidas de potencia. Con una menor frecuencia de conmutación, el ancho de pulso en la transición es más pequeño. El número de fases relativo a la aplicación específica puede ser optimizado en términos de la eficiencia global. Otro aspecto de la optimización es mejorar la estrategia de control. La transición permite seguir algunas partes de la evolvente que son más rápidas de lo que el hardware puede soportar al precio de complejidad. El nuevo método de sincronización de la transición incrementa la frecuencia de la transición, permitiendo que la tensión multinivel esté más cerca de la evolvente. Ambas estrategias permiten que el convertidor pueda seguir una evolvente con un ancho de banda más alto que la limitación de la etapa de potencia. El modelo de pérdidas del amplificador de evolvente se ha detallado y validado mediante medidas. El mecanismo de pérdidas de potencia del convertidor reductor tiene que incluir las transiciones en tiempo real, lo cual es diferente del clásico modelos de pérdidas de un convertidor reductor síncrono. Este modelo estima la eficiencia del sistema y juega un papel muy importante en el proceso de optimización. Finalmente, la segunda arquitectura del amplificador de evolvente se integra con el amplificador de clase F. La medida del sistema EER prueba el ahorro de energía con el amplificador de evolvente propuesto sin perjudicar la linealidad del sistema. ABSTRACT The requirement of delivering high data rates in modern wireless communication systems results in complex modulated RF signals with wide bandwidth and high peak-to-average ratio (PAPR). In order to guarantee the linearity performance, the conventional linear power amplifiers typically work at 4 to 10 dB back-off from the maximum output power, leading to low system efficiency. The envelope elimination and restoration (EER) and envelope tracking (ET) are two promising techniques to overcome the efficiency problem. In both EER and ET, it is challenging to design efficient envelope amplifier for wide bandwidth and high PAPR RF signals. An usual approach for envelope amplifier includes a high-efficiency switching power converter operating at a frequency higher than the RF signal's bandwidth. In this case, the power loss of converter caused by high switching operation becomes unbearable for system efficiency when signal bandwidth is very wide. The solution of this problem is the focus of this dissertation that presents two architectures of envelope amplifier: a hybrid series converter with slow-envelope technique and a multilevel converter based on a multiphase buck converter with the minimum time control. In the first architecture, a hybrid topology is composed of a switched buck converter and a linear regulator in series that work together to adjust the output voltage to track the envelope with accuracy. A slow envelope generation algorithm yields a waveform with limited slew rate that is lower than the maximum slew rate of the original envelope. The buck converter's output follows this waveform instead of the original envelope using lower switching frequency, because the waveform has not only reduced slew rate but also reduced bandwidth. In this way, the linear regulator used to filter the waveform has additional power loss. Depending on how much reduction of the slew rate of envelope in order to obtain that waveform, there is a trade-off between the power loss of buck converter related to the switching frequency and the power loss of linear regulator. The optimal point referring to the lowest total power loss of this envelope amplifier is identified with the help of a precise power loss model that is a combination of behavioral and analytic loss model. In addition, the output filter's effect on the response is analyzed. An extra parallel damping filter is needed to eliminate the resonant oscillation of output filter L and C, because the buck converter operates in open loop. The second architecture is a multilevel voltage tracking envelope amplifier. Unlike the converters using multi-sources, a multiphase buck converter is employed to generate the multilevel voltage. In the steady state, the buck converter operates at complete ripple cancellation points of duty cycle. The number of the voltage levels is equal to the number of phases according the characteristics of interleaved buck converter. In the transition, a minimum time control (MTC) for multiphase converter is originally proposed and developed for changing the output voltage of buck converter between different levels. As opposed to conventional minimum time control for multiphase converter with equivalent inductance, the proposed MTC considers the current ripple of each phase based on the fixed phase shift resulting in different control schemes among the phases. The advantage of this control is that all the phase current return to the steady state after the transition so that the next transition can be triggered very soon, which is very favorable for the application of multilevel voltage tracking. Besides, the control is independent on the load condition and not affected by the unbalance of phase current. Like the first architecture, there is also a linear stage with the same function, connected in series with the multiphase buck converter. Since both steady state and transition state of the converter are not strongly related to the switching frequency, it can be reduced for wide bandwidth envelope which is the main consideration of this architecture. The optimization of the second architecture for wider bandwidth envelope is presented including the output filter design, switching frequency and the number of phases. The filter design area is restrained by fast transition and the minimum pulse of hardware. The fast transition needs small filter but the minimum pulse of hardware limitation pushes the filter in opposite way. The converter switching frequency mainly affects the minimum pulse limitation and the power loss. With lower switching frequency, the pulse width in the transition is smaller. The number of phases related to specific application can be optimized in terms of overall efficiency. Another aspect of optimization is improving control strategy. Transition shift allows tracking some parts of envelope that are faster than the hardware can support at the price of complexity. The new transition synchronization method increases the frequency of transition, allowing the multilevel voltage to be closer to the envelope. Both control strategies push the converter to track wider bandwidth envelope than the limitation of power stage. The power loss model of envelope amplifier is detailed and validated by measurements. The power loss mechanism of buck converter has to include the transitions in real time operation, which is different from classical power loss model of synchronous buck converter. This model estimates the system efficiency and play a very important role in optimization process. Finally, the second envelope amplifier architecture is integrated with a Class F amplifier. EER system measurement proves the power saving with the proposed envelope amplifier without disrupting the linearity performance.

Calibration of accelerometers for the measurement of microvibrations

The accelerometers used for the measurement of microvibrations or microgravity applications, such as active control of space structures, attitude control, scientific payloads, or even on-Earth testing of structures at very low-excitation levels, require a dedicated calibration procedure that includes the gravitational effects. Otherwise, on-Earth calibrations can be inaccurate due to the collateral projection of the local gravity onto the sensitive axis. An on-Earth calibration technique for the 107102s amplitude range and 0-100-Hz frequency range is described. Special attention has been given to the modeling of gravitational effects on the response of the calibration device and the accelerometer itself. The sensitivity and resolution tests performed on piezoelectric accelerometers showthe accuracy andthe potential of thistechnique. Typical scale factorun certainty, which hasbeen carefully analyzed, is of the order of 2% at acceleration levels of 10sg.

Combination of optical and on-destructivemechanicaltechniques for the measurement of maturity in peach

Increasing consumer dissatisfaction related with lack of ripeness in peach has been repeatedly reported since 1990 to the present day. There is thus, a great interest in improving the assessment of peach maturity, currently based on Magness Taylor firmness (destructive, highly variable, and time consuming) and colour (not reliable for highly coloured varieties). The present research studies as an alternative several non-destructive (ND) measurements, based on multispectral imaging, visible spectra, and low mass impact response. Their relationship with maturity, as well as the potential of their combination was studied. As a result, two rather independent (R2 = 0.3) groups of non-destructive measurements, chlorophyll related optical indexes and low mass impact (LMI) measurements, were identified. Optical measurements showed the best behaviour for assessing maturity at harvest, while LMI measurements reflected handling incidences, showing a promising potential to be used to control transport and postharvest handling.

Self-validating technique for the measurement of the linewidth enhancement factor in semiconductor lasers

A new method for measuring the linewidth enhancement factor (α-parameter) of semiconductor lasers is proposed and discussed. The method itself provides an estimation of the measurement error, thus self-validating the entire procedure. The α-parameter is obtained from the temporal profile and the instantaneous frequency (chirp) of the pulses generated by gain switching. The time resolved chirp is measured with a polarization based optical differentiator. The accuracy of the obtained values of the α-parameter is estimated from the comparison between the directly measured pulse spectrum and the spectrum reconstructed from the chirp and the temporal profile of the pulse. The method is applied to a VCSEL and to a DFB laser emitting around 1550 nm at different temperatures, obtaining a measurement error lower than ± 8%.

Analysis of jitter influence in fast frequency measurements

This paper presents a theoretical analysis of possible jitter impact in application of numeric criterion for fastmeasurement of frequency by coincidence principle. The primary goal is the generation of a signal containing a known amount of each jitter components. This signal was used for testing signals with regular pulse trains. Initially, jitter components are analyzed and modeled individually. Next, sequences for combining different kinds of jitter are modeled, simulated and evaluated. Jitter model simulation in Matlab is utilized to show the independence of frequencymeasurement results on the total jitter present in the reference and desired pulse trains independently. A good agreement between previously introduced theory of fastmeasurement of frequency and simulation in jitter presence is verified; these results allows to engineers use the numeric criterion for fastmeasurement of frequency in spite to interactions among jitter components in various applications for frequency domain sensors.

Abutments influence in the dynamic response of bridges

A simplified analytical model of a short span bridge is proposed. The inertial interaction effects of pier foundations and abutments has been included in order to evaluate the response sensitivities to different soil-structure interaction variables. The modification of natural frequency and damping properties is shown for typical short span bridges of the integral deck-abutment type for longitudinal vibrations or general bridges for the transverse ones.

On-site measurement of limiting subcell in multijunction solar devices

It is well known that the response of any photovoltaic solar cell is dependent on the spectral characteristics of the incident radiation. This dependency is crucial in the output characteristics of a multijunction (MJ) cell where the spectral composition of the radiation determines the overall photocurrent produced, as either the top or the middle subcell will be limiting its response. The current mismatching between top and middle subcell is translated into energy losses, affecting the yield of the system. For research and commercial purposes it is interesting to measure accurately the incident solar radiation on a MJ cell, in terms of its spectral composition. This measurement will allows us to determine the photocurrent generated in each band of the multijunction device. Nowadays, the only way of measuring the photocurrent generated by each subcell is done with isotype cells or with spectroradiometers but there is no device capable of directly measuring each subcell photocurrent. In this paper it is described a device based on a commercial multijunction solar cell that is capable of measuring the direct irradiance for the top and middle bands thus it offers information of the limiting subcell (top or middle) in outdoors conditions.

Computational Methods for Identification of Vibrating Structures

System identification deals with the problem of building mathematical models of dynamical systems based on observed data from the system" [1]. In the context of civil engineering, the system refers to a large scale structure such as a building, bridge, or an offshore structure, and identification mostly involves the determination of modal parameters (the natural frequencies, damping ratios, and mode shapes). This paper presents some modal identification results obtained using a state-of-the-art time domain system identification method (data-driven stochastic subspace algorithms [2]) applied to the output-only data measured in a steel arch bridge. First, a three dimensional finite element model was developed for the numerical analysis of the structure using ANSYS. Modal analysis was carried out and modal parameters were extracted in the frequency range of interest, 0-10 Hz. The results obtained from the finite element modal analysis were used to determine the location of the sensors. After that, ambient vibration tests were conducted during April 23-24, 2009. The response of the structure was measured using eight accelerometers. Two stations of three sensors were formed (triaxial stations). These sensors were held stationary for reference during the test. The two remaining sensors were placed at the different measurement points along the bridge deck, in which only vertical and transversal measurements were conducted (biaxial stations). Point estimate and interval estimate have been carried out in the state space model using these ambient vibration measurements. In the case of parametric models (like state space), the dynamic behaviour of a system is described using mathematical models. Then, mathematical relationships can be established between modal parameters and estimated point parameters (thus, it is common to use experimental modal analysis as a synonym for system identification). Stable modal parameters are found using a stabilization diagram. Furthermore, this paper proposes a method for assessing the precision of estimates of the parameters of state-space models (confidence interval). This approach employs the nonparametric bootstrap procedure [3] and is applied to subspace parameter estimation algorithm. Using bootstrap results, a plot similar to a stabilization diagram is developed. These graphics differentiate system modes from spurious noise modes for a given order system. Additionally, using the modal assurance criterion, the experimental modes obtained have been compared with those evaluated from a finite element analysis. A quite good agreement between numerical and experimental results is observed.

Influence of the Second Flexural Mode on the Response of High-Speed Bridges

This paper deals with the assessment of the contribution of the second flexural mode to the dynamic behaviour of simply supported railway bridges. Alluding to the works of other authors, it is suggested in some references that the dynamic behaviour of simply supported bridges could be adequately represented taking into account only the contribution of the fundamental flexural mode. On the other hand, the European Rail Research Institute (ERRI) proposes that the second mode should also be included whenever the associated natural frequency is lower than 30 Hz]. This investigation endeavours to clarify the question as much as possible by establishing whether the maximum response of the bridge, in terms of displacements, accelerations and bending moments, can be computed accurately not taking account of the contribution of the second mode. To this end, a dimensionless formulation of the equations of motion of a simply supported beam traversed by a series of equally spaced moving loads is presented. This formulation brings to light the fundamental parameters governing the behaviour of the beam: damping ratio, dimensionless speed $ \alpha$=VT/L, and L/d ratio (L stands for the span of the beam, V for the speed of the train, T represents the fundamental period of the bridge and d symbolises the distance between consecutive loads). Assuming a damping ratio equal to 1%, which is a usual value for prestressed high-speed bridges, a parametric analysis is conducted over realistic ranges of values of $ \alpha$ and L/d. The results can be extended to any simply supported bridge subjected to a train of equally spaced loads in virtue of the so-called Similarity Formulae. The validity of these formulae can be derived from the dimensionless formulation mentioned above. In the parametric analysis the maximum response of the bridge is obtained for one thousand values of speed that cover the range from the fourth resonance of the first mode to the first resonance of the second mode. The response at twenty-one different locations along the span of the beam is compared in order to decide if the maximum can be accurately computed with the sole contribution of the fundamental mode.

Sistema de instrumentação e controle para células a combustível

Este trabajo presenta un estudio sobre el funcionamiento y aplicaciones de las células de combustible de membrana tipo PEM, o de intercambio de protones, alimentadas con hidrógeno puro y oxigeno obtenido de aire comprimido. Una vez evaluado el proceso de dichas células y las variables que intervienen en el mismo, como presión, humedad y temperatura, se presenta una variedad de métodos para la instrumentación de tales variables así como métodos y sistemas para la estabilidad y control de las mismas, en torno a los valores óptimos para una mayor eficacia en el proceso. Tomando como variable principal a controlar la temperatura del proceso, y exponiendo los valores concretos en torno a 80 grados centígrados entre los que debe situarse, es realizado un modelo del proceso de calentamiento y evolución de la temperatura en función de la potencia del calentador resistivo en el dominio de la frecuencia compleja, y a su vez implementado un sistema de medición mediante sensores termopar de tipo K de respuesta casi lineal. La señal medida por los sensores es amplificada de manera diferencial mediante amplificadores de instrumentación INA2126, y es desarrollado un algoritmo de corrección de error de unión fría (error producido por la inclusión de nuevos metales del conector en el efecto termopar). Son incluidos los datos de test referentes al sistema de medición de temperatura , incluyendo las desviaciones o error respecto a los valores ideales de medida. Para la adquisición de datos y implementación de algoritmos de control, es utilizado un PC con el software Labview de National Instruments, que permite una programación intuitiva, versátil y visual, y poder realizar interfaces de usuario gráficas simples. La conexión entre el hardware de instrumentación y control de la célula y el PC se realiza mediante un interface de adquisición de datos USB NI 6800 que cuenta con un amplio número de salidas y entradas analógicas. Una vez digitalizadas las muestras de la señal medida, y corregido el error de unión fría anteriormente apuntado, es implementado en dicho software un controlador de tipo PID ( proporcional-integral-derivativo) , que se presenta como uno de los métodos más adecuados por su simplicidad de programación y su eficacia para el control de este tipo de variables. Para la evaluación del comportamiento del sistema son expuestas simulaciones mediante el software Matlab y Simulink determinando por tanto las mejores estrategias para desarrollar el control PID, así como los posibles resultados del proceso. En cuanto al sistema de calentamiento de los fluidos, es empleado un elemento resistor calentador, cuya potencia es controlada mediante un circuito electrónico compuesto por un detector de cruce por cero de la onda AC de alimentación y un sistema formado por un elemento TRIAC y su circuito de accionamiento. De manera análoga se expone el sistema de instrumentación para la presión de los gases en el circuito, variable que oscila en valores próximos a 3 atmosferas, para ello es empleado un sensor de presión con salida en corriente mediante bucle 4-20 mA, y un convertidor simple corriente a tensión para la entrada al sistema de adquisición de datos. Consecuentemente se presenta el esquema y componentes necesarios para la canalización, calentamiento y humidificación de los gases empleados en el proceso así como la situación de los sensores y actuadores. Por último el trabajo expone la relación de algoritmos desarrollados y un apéndice con información relativa al software Labview. ABTRACT This document presents a study about the operation and applications of PEM fuel cells (Proton exchange membrane fuel cells), fed with pure hydrogen and oxygen obtained from compressed air. Having evaluated the process of these cells and the variables involved on it, such as pressure, humidity and temperature, there is a variety of methods for implementing their control and to set up them around optimal values for greater efficiency in the process. Taking as primary process variable the temperature, and exposing its correct values around 80 degrees centigrade, between which must be placed, is carried out a model of the heating process and the temperature evolution related with the resistive heater power on the complex frequency domain, and is implemented a measuring system with thermocouple sensor type K performing a almost linear response. The differential signal measured by the sensor is amplified through INA2126 instrumentation amplifiers, and is developed a cold junction error correction algorithm (error produced by the inclusion of additional metals of connectors on the thermocouple effect). Data from the test concerning the temperature measurement system are included , including deviations or error regarding the ideal values of measurement. For data acquisition and implementation of control algorithms, is used a PC with LabVIEW software from National Instruments, which makes programming intuitive, versatile, visual, and useful to perform simple user interfaces. The connection between the instrumentation and control hardware of the cell and the PC interface is via a USB data acquisition NI 6800 that has a large number of analog inputs and outputs. Once stored the samples of the measured signal, and correct the error noted above junction, is implemented a software controller PID (proportional-integral-derivative), which is presented as one of the best methods for their programming simplicity and effectiveness for the control of such variables. To evaluate the performance of the system are presented simulations using Matlab and Simulink software thereby determining the best strategies to develop PID control, and possible outcomes of the process. As fluid heating system, is employed a heater resistor element whose power is controlled by an electronic circuit comprising a zero crossing detector of the AC power wave and a system consisting of a Triac and its drive circuit. As made with temperature variable it is developed an instrumentation system for gas pressure in the circuit, variable ranging in values around 3 atmospheres, it is employed a pressure sensor with a current output via 4-20 mA loop, and a single current to voltage converter to adequate the input to the data acquisition system. Consequently is developed the scheme and components needed for circulation, heating and humidification of the gases used in the process as well as the location of sensors and actuators. Finally the document presents the list of algorithms and an appendix with information about Labview software.

Transient acoustic response in car cabins with localization of reflections

Due to its small size and the restrictions on source and listener positions, the design of sound reproduction systems for car cabins is particularly cumbersome. In the present project the measurement of the impulse response between a single loudspeaker and a listener position, with special emphasis on the directional characteristics, will be examined. The propagation paths inside a car are very short, meaning that it is very difficult for the existing commercial measurement systems to resolve the different reflections arriving to the listener. This paper propose a first approach of an algorithm based on time difference of arrival along a measurement technique aiming at finding the reflections and their direction of arrival to the listener. To this end a circular microphone array at a known position is employed, along with Maximum-Length Sequences (MLS) measurement technique. The results are processed so as to extract the directional properties, demonstrate the physical limitations that can influence or prevent this detection in practice. Measurements were carried out in a free-field environment (anechoic chamber) making use of different panels closer around the microphone array. RESUMEN. El diseño de sistemas de reproducción de audio para cabinas de coche es especialmente complicado debido al reducido tamaño del espacio y las restricciones de los altavoces y posiciones de escucha de los ocupantes. En el presente proyecto, se examinan mediciones de la respuesta al impulso entre un altavoz y una posición de escucha con especial énfasis en las características direccionales. Los caminos de propagación de las ondas sonoras dentro de un coche son muy cortos, lo que hace difícil para los instrumentos de medida existentes en el mercado determinar las direcciones de llegada de las diferentes reflexiones que llegan a una posición de escucha. Este trabajo propone una primera aproximación de un algoritmo, basado en las diferencias temporales de llegada de una onda a diferentes puntos de medida, y una particular técnica de medida de la respuesta al impulso para obtener las direcciones de llegada de reflexiones a una posición de escucha. Para ello, se emplea una matriz circular de micrófonos en una posición conocida junto con la técnica de medida MLS (Maximum Length Sequence). Los resultados obtenidos son procesados para extraer la dirección de llegada de las reflexiones acústicas y encontrar las limitaciones que influyan en la detección de dichas reflexiones. Las mediciones se llevan a cabo en un entorno de campo libre y utilizando diferentes superficies reflectantes alrededor de la matriz de micrófonos.

Super-high-frequency SAW resonators on AlN/Diamond

This letter describes the procedure to manufacture high-performance surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators on AlN/diamond heterostructures working at frequencies beyond 10 GHz. In the design of SAW devices on AlN/diamond systems, the thickness of the piezoelectric layer is a key parameter. The influence of the film thickness on the SAW device response has been studied. Optimized thin films combined with advanced e-beam lithographic techniques have allowed the fabrication of one-port SAW resonators with finger width and pitch of 200 nm operating in the 10–14 GHz range with up to 36 dB out-of-band rejection.