Distributed power generation in the United States

With electricity consumption increasing within the UnitedStates, new paradigms of delivering electricity are required in order to meet demand. One promising option is the increased use of distributedpowergeneration. Already a growing percentage of electricity generation, distributedgeneration locates the power plant physically close to the consumer, avoiding transmission and distribution losses as well as providing the possibility of combined heat and power. Despite the efficiency gains possible, regulators and utilities have been reluctant to implement distributedgeneration, creating numerous technical, regulatory, and business barriers. Certain governments, most notable California, are making concerted efforts to overcome these barriers in order to ensure distributedgeneration plays a part as the country meets demand while shifting to cleaner sources of energy.

Dynamic response of hydro power plants for providing secondary regulation reserves considering elastic water column effects

In this paper, the dynamic response of a hydro power plant for providing secondary regulation reserve is studied in detail. Special emphasis is given to the elastic water column effects both in the penstock and the tailrace tunnel. For this purpose, a nonlinear model based on the analogy between mass and momentum conservation equations of a water conduit and those of wave propagation in transmission lines is used. The influence of the plant configuration and design parameters on the fulfilment of the Spanish Electrical System Operator requirements is analysed

IFE Plant Technology Overview and contribution to HiPER proposal

HiPER is the European Project for Laser Fusion that has been able to join 26 institutions and signed under formal government agreement by 6 countries inside the ESFRI Program of the European Union (EU). The project is already extended by EU for two years more (until 2013) after its first preparatory phase from 2008. A large work has been developed in different areas to arrive to a design of repetitive operation of Laser Fusion Reactor, and decisions are envisioned in the next phase of Technology Development or Risk Reduction for Engineering or Power Plant facilities (or both). Chamber design has been very much completed for Engineering phase and starting of preliminary options for Reactor Power Plant have been established and review here.

Dynamic response of hydro power plants to load variations for providing secondary regulation reserves considering elastic water column effects

In this paper, the dynamic response of a hydro power plant for providing secondary regulation reserve is studied in detail. S pecial emphasis is given to the elastic water column effects both in the penstock and the tailrace tunnel. For this purpose, a nonline ar model based on the analogy between mass and momentum conservation equations of a water conduit and those of wave propagation in transmission lines is used. The influence of the plant configuration and design parameters on the fulfilment of the Spanish Electrical System Operator requirem ents is analysed.

Testing a GIS-based methodology for optimal location of Pumped Storage power plants in Norway

Europe needs to restructure its energy system. The aim to decrease the reliance on fossil fuels to a higher dependence on renewable energy has now been imposed by The European Commission. In order to achieve this goal there is a great interest in Norway to become "The Green Battery of Europe". In the pursuit of this goal a GIS-tool was created to investigate the pump storage potential in Norway. The tool searches for possible connections between existing reservoirs and dams with the criteria selected by the user. The aim of this thesis was to test the tool and see if the results suggested were plausible, develop a cost calculation method for the PSH lines, and make suggestions for further development of the tool. During the process the tool presented many non-feasible pumped storage hydropower (PSH) connections. The area of Telemark was chosen for the more detailed study. The results were discussed and some improvements were suggested for further development of the tool. Also a sensitivity test was done to see which of the parameters set by the user are the most relevant for the PSH connection suggestion. From a range of the most promising PSH plants suggested by the tool, the one between Songavatn and Totak was chosen for a case study, where there already exists a power plant between both reservoirs. A new Pumped Storage Plant was designed with a power production of 1200 MW. There are still many topics open to discussion, such as how to deal with environmental restrictions, or how to deal with inflows and outflows of the reservoirs from the existing power plants. Consequently the GIS-tool can be a very useful tool to establish the best possible connections between existing reservoirs and dams, but it still needs a deep study and the creation of new parameters for the user.

Dry cooling with night cool storage to enhance solar power plants performance in extreme conditions areas

Solar thermal power plants are usually installed in locations with high yearly average solar radiation, often deserts. In such conditions, cooling water required for thermodynamic cycles is rarely available. Moreover, when solar radiation is high, ambient temperature is very high as well; this leads to excessive condensation temperature, especially when air-condensers are used, and decreases the plant efficiency. However, temperature variation in deserts is often very high, which drives to relatively low temperatures during the night. This fact can be exploited with the use of a closed cooling system, so that the coolant (water) is chilled during the night and store. Chilled water is then used during peak temperature hours to cool the condenser (dry cooling), thus enhancing power output and efficiency. The present work analyzes the performance improvement achieved by night thermal cool storage, compared to its equivalent air cooled power plant. Dry cooling is proved to be energy-effective for moderately high day–night temperature differences (20 °C), often found in desert locations. The storage volume requirement for different power plant efficiencies has also been studied, resulting on an asymptotic tendency.

Comparisson of hydrogen applications for storage and energy vector

For the decades to come can be foreseen that electricity and water will keep be playing a key role in the countries development, both can be considered the most important energy vectors and its control can be crucial for governments, companies and leaders in general. Energy is essential for all human activities and its availability is critical to economic and social development. In particular, electricity, a form of energy, is required to produce goods, to provide medical assistance and basic civic services in education, to assure availability of clean water, to create conducive environment for prosperity and improvement, and to keep an acceptable quality of life. The way in which electricity is generated from different resources varies through the different countries. Nuclear energy controlled within reactors to steam production, gas, fuel-oil and coal fired in power stations, water, solar and wind energy among others are employed, sometimes not very efficiently, to produce electricity. The so call energy mix of an individual country is formed up by the contribution of each resource or form of energy to the electricity generation market of the so country. During the last decade the establishment of proper energy mixes for countries has gained much importance, and energy drivers should enforce long term plans and policies. Hints, reports and guides giving tracks on energy resources contribution are been developed by noticeable organisations like the IEA (International Energy Agency) or the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) and the WEC (World Energy Council). This paper evaluates energy issues the market and countries are facing today regarding energy mix scheduling and panorama. This paper revises and seeks to improve methodology available that are applicable on energy mix plan definition. Key Factors are identified, established and assessed through this paper for the common implementation, the themes driving the future energy mix methodology proposal. Those have a clear influence and are closely related to future environmental policies. Key Factors take into consideration sustainability, energy security, social and economic growth, climate change, air quality and social stability. The strength of the Key Factors application on energy system planning to different countries is contingent on country resources, location, electricity demand and electricity generation industry, technology available, economic situation and prospects, energy policy and regulation

Supercritical Steam power cycle for Line-Focus Solar Power Plants

The supercritical Rankine power cycle offers a net improvement in plant efficiency compared with a subcritical Rankine cycle. For fossil power plants the minimum supercritical steam turbine size is about 450MW. A recent study between Sandia National Laboratories and Siemens Energy, Inc., published on March 2013, confirmed the feasibility of adapting the Siemens turbine SST-900 for supercritical steam in concentrated solar power plants, with a live steam conditions 230-260 bar and output range between 140-200 MWe. In this context, this analysis is focused on integrating a line-focus solar field with a supercritical Rankine power cycle. For this purpose two heat transfer fluids were assessed: direct steam generation and molten salt Hitec XL. To isolate solar field from high pressure supercritical water power cycle, an intermediate heat exchanger was installed between linear solar collectors and balance of plant. Due to receiver selective coating temperature limitations, turbine inlet temperature was fixed 550ºC. The design-point conditions were 550ºC and 260 bar at turbine inlet, and 165 MWe Gross power output. Plant performance was assessed at design-point in the supercritical power plant (between 43-45% net plant efficiency depending on balance of plantconfiguration), and in the subcritical plant configuration (~40% net plant efficiency). Regarding the balance of plant configuration, direct reheating was adopted as the optimum solution to avoid any intermediate heat exchanger. One direct reheating stage between high pressure turbine and intermediate pressure turbine is the common practice; however, General Electric ultrasupercritical(350 bar) fossil power plants also considered doubled-reheat applications. In this study were analyzed heat balances with single-reheat, double-reheat and even three reheating stages. In all cases were adopted the proper reheating solar field configurations to limit solar collectors pressure drops. As main conclusion, it was confirmed net plant efficiency improvements in supercritical Rankine line-focus (parabolic or linear Fresnel) solar plant configurations are mainly due to the following two reasons: higher number of feed-water preheaters (up to seven)delivering hotter water at solar field inlet, and two or even three direct reheating stages (550ºC reheating temperature) in high or intermediate pressure turbines. However, the turbine manufacturer should confirm the equipment constrains regarding reheating stages and number of steam extractions to feed-water heaters.

High power beam dump project for the accelerator prototype LIPAc: Cooling design and analysis

En el campo de la fusión nuclear y desarrollándose en paralelo a ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor), el proyecto IFMIF (International Fusion Material Irradiation Facility) se enmarca dentro de las actividades complementarias encaminadas a solucionar las barreras tecnológicas que aún plantea la fusión. En concreto IFMIF es una instalación de irradiación cuya misión es caracterizar materiales resistentes a condiciones extremas como las esperadas en los futuros reactores de fusión como DEMO (DEMOnstration power plant). Consiste de dos aceleradores de deuterones que proporcionan un haz de 125 mA y 40 MeV cada uno, que al colisionar con un blanco de litio producen un flujo neutrónico intenso (1017 neutrones/s) con un espectro similar al de los neutrones de fusión [1], [2]. Dicho flujo neutrónico es empleado para irradiar los diferentes materiales candidatos a ser empleados en reactores de fusión, y las muestras son posteriormente examinadas en la llamada instalación de post-irradiación. Como primer paso en tan ambicioso proyecto, una fase de validación y diseño llamada IFMIFEVEDA (Engineering Validation and Engineering Design Activities) se encuentra actualmente en desarrollo. Una de las actividades contempladas en esta fase es la construcción y operación de una acelarador prototipo llamado LIPAc (Linear IFMIF Prototype Accelerator). Se trata de un acelerador de deuterones de alta intensidad idéntico a la parte de baja energía de los aceleradores de IFMIF. Los componentes del LIPAc, que será instalado en Japón, son suministrados por diferentes países europeos. El acelerador proporcionará un haz continuo de deuterones de 9 MeV con una potencia de 1.125 MW que tras ser caracterizado con diversos instrumentos deberá pararse de forma segura. Para ello se requiere un sistema denominado bloque de parada (Beam Dump en inglés) que absorba la energía del haz y la transfiera a un sumidero de calor. España tiene el compromiso de suministrar este componente y CIEMAT (Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas) es responsable de dicha tarea. La pieza central del bloque de parada, donde se para el haz de iones, es un cono de cobre con un ángulo de 3.5o, 2.5 m de longitud y 5 mm de espesor. Dicha pieza está refrigerada por agua que fluye en su superficie externa por el canal que se forma entre el cono de cobre y otra pieza concéntrica con éste. Este es el marco en que se desarrolla la presente tesis, cuyo objeto es el diseño del sistema de refrigeración del bloque de parada del LIPAc. El diseño se ha realizado utilizando un modelo simplificado unidimensional. Se han obtenido los parámetros del agua (presión, caudal, pérdida de carga) y la geometría requerida en el canal de refrigeración (anchura, rugosidad) para garantizar la correcta refrigeración del bloque de parada. Se ha comprobado que el diseño permite variaciones del haz respecto a la situación nominal siendo el flujo crítico calorífico al menos 2 veces superior al nominal. Se han realizado asimismo simulaciones fluidodinámicas 3D con ANSYS-CFX en aquellas zonas del canal de refrigeración que lo requieren. El bloque de parada se activará como consecuencia de la interacción del haz de partículas lo que impide cualquier cambio o reparación una vez comenzada la operación del acelerador. Por ello el diseño ha de ser muy robusto y todas las hipótesis utilizadas en la realización de éste deben ser cuidadosamente comprobadas. Gran parte del esfuerzo de la tesis se centra en la estimación del coeficiente de transferencia de calor que es determinante en los resultados obtenidos, y que se emplea además como condición de contorno en los cálculos mecánicos. Para ello por un lado se han buscado correlaciones cuyo rango de aplicabilidad sea adecuado para las condiciones del bloque de parada (canal anular, diferencias de temperatura agua-pared de decenas de grados). En un segundo paso se han comparado los coeficientes de película obtenidos a partir de la correlación seleccionada (Petukhov-Gnielinski) con los que se deducen de simulaciones fluidodinámicas, obteniendo resultados satisfactorios. Por último se ha realizado una validación experimental utilizando un prototipo y un circuito hidráulico que proporciona un flujo de agua con los parámetros requeridos en el bloque de parada. Tras varios intentos y mejoras en el experimento se han obtenido los coeficientes de película para distintos caudales y potencias de calentamiento. Teniendo en cuenta la incertidumbre de las medidas, los valores experimentales concuerdan razonablemente bien (en el rango de 15%) con los deducidos de las correlaciones. Por motivos radiológicos es necesario controlar la calidad del agua de refrigeración y minimizar la corrosión del cobre. Tras un estudio bibliográfico se identificaron los parámetros del agua más adecuados (conductividad, pH y concentración de oxígeno disuelto). Como parte de la tesis se ha realizado asimismo un estudio de la corrosión del circuito de refrigeración del bloque de parada con el doble fin de determinar si puede poner en riesgo la integridad del componente, y de obtener una estimación de la velocidad de corrosión para dimensionar el sistema de purificación del agua. Se ha utilizado el código TRACT (TRansport and ACTivation code) adaptándalo al caso del bloque de parada, para lo cual se trabajó con el responsable (Panos Karditsas) del código en Culham (UKAEA). Los resultados confirman que la corrosión del cobre en las condiciones seleccionadas no supone un problema. La Tesis se encuentra estructurada de la siguiente manera: En el primer capítulo se realiza una introducción de los proyectos IFMIF y LIPAc dentro de los cuales se enmarca esta Tesis. Además se describe el bloque de parada, siendo el diseño del sistema de rerigeración de éste el principal objetivo de la Tesis. En el segundo y tercer capítulo se realiza un resumen de la base teórica así como de las diferentes herramientas empleadas en el diseño del sistema de refrigeración. El capítulo cuarto presenta los resultados del relativos al sistema de refrigeración. Tanto los obtenidos del estudio unidimensional, como los obtenidos de las simulaciones fluidodinámicas 3D mediante el empleo del código ANSYS-CFX. En el quinto capítulo se presentan los resultados referentes al análisis de corrosión del circuito de refrigeración del bloque de parada. El capítulo seis se centra en la descripción del montaje experimental para la obtención de los valores de pérdida de carga y coeficiente de transferencia del calor. Asimismo se presentan los resultados obtenidos en dichos experimentos. Finalmente encontramos un capítulo de apéndices en el que se describen una serie de experimentos llevados a cabo como pasos intermedios en la obtención del resultado experimental del coeficiente de película. También se presenta el código informático empleado para el análisis unidimensional del sistema de refrigeración del bloque de parada llamado CHICA (Cooling and Heating Interaction and Corrosion Analysis). ABSTRACT In the nuclear fusion field running in parallel to ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) as one of the complementary activities headed towards solving the technological barriers, IFMIF (International Fusion Material Irradiation Facility) project aims to provide an irradiation facility to qualify advanced materials resistant to extreme conditions like the ones expected in future fusion reactors like DEMO (DEMOnstration Power Plant). IFMIF consists of two constant wave deuteron accelerators delivering a 125 mA and 40 MeV beam each that will collide on a lithium target producing an intense neutron fluence (1017 neutrons/s) with a similar spectra to that of fusion neutrons [1], [2]. This neutron flux is employed to irradiate the different material candidates to be employed in the future fusion reactors, and the samples examined after irradiation at the so called post-irradiative facilities. As a first step in such an ambitious project, an engineering validation and engineering design activity phase called IFMIF-EVEDA (Engineering Validation and Engineering Design Activities) is presently going on. One of the activities consists on the construction and operation of an accelerator prototype named LIPAc (Linear IFMIF Prototype Accelerator). It is a high intensity deuteron accelerator identical to the low energy part of the IFMIF accelerators. The LIPAc components, which will be installed in Japan, are delivered by different european countries. The accelerator supplies a 9 MeV constant wave beam of deuterons with a power of 1.125 MW, which after being characterized by different instruments has to be stopped safely. For such task a beam dump to absorb the beam energy and take it to a heat sink is needed. Spain has the compromise of delivering such device and CIEMAT (Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas) is responsible for such task. The central piece of the beam dump, where the ion beam is stopped, is a copper cone with an angle of 3.5o, 2.5 m long and 5 mm width. This part is cooled by water flowing on its external surface through the channel formed between the copper cone and a concentric piece with the latter. The thesis is developed in this realm, and its objective is designing the LIPAc beam dump cooling system. The design has been performed employing a simplified one dimensional model. The water parameters (pressure, flow, pressure loss) and the required annular channel geometry (width, rugoisty) have been obtained guaranteeing the correct cooling of the beam dump. It has been checked that the cooling design allows variations of the the beam with respect to the nominal position, being the CHF (Critical Heat Flux) at least twice times higher than the nominal deposited heat flux. 3D fluid dynamic simulations employing ANSYS-CFX code in the beam dump cooling channel sections which require a more thorough study have also been performed. The beam dump will activateasaconsequenceofthe deuteron beam interaction, making impossible any change or maintenance task once the accelerator operation has started. Hence the design has to be very robust and all the hypotheses employed in the design mustbecarefully checked. Most of the work in the thesis is concentrated in estimating the heat transfer coefficient which is decisive in the obtained results, and is also employed as boundary condition in the mechanical analysis. For such task, correlations which applicability range is the adequate for the beam dump conditions (annular channel, water-surface temperature differences of tens of degrees) have been compiled. In a second step the heat transfer coefficients obtained from the selected correlation (Petukhov- Gnielinski) have been compared with the ones deduced from the 3D fluid dynamic simulations, obtaining satisfactory results. Finally an experimental validation has been performed employing a prototype and a hydraulic circuit that supplies a flow with the requested parameters in the beam dump. After several tries and improvements in the experiment, the heat transfer coefficients for different flows and heating powers have been obtained. Considering the uncertainty in the measurements the experimental values agree reasonably well (in the order of 15%) with the ones obtained from the correlations. Due to radiological reasons the quality of the cooling water must be controlled, hence minimizing the copper corrosion. After performing a bibligraphic study the most adequate water parameters were identified (conductivity, pH and dissolved oxygen concentration). As part of this thesis a corrosion study of the beam dump cooling circuit has been performed with the double aim of determining if corrosion can pose a risk for the copper beam dump , and obtaining an estimation of the corrosion velocitytodimension the water purification system. TRACT code(TRansport and ACTivation) has been employed for such study adapting the code for the beam dump case. For such study a collaboration with the code responsible (Panos Karditsas) at Culham (UKAEA) was established. The work developed in this thesis has supposed the publication of three articles in JCR journals (”Journal of Nuclear Materials” y ”Fusion Engineering and Design”), as well as presentations in more than four conferences and relevant meetings.

Contribution to Load-Frequency Regulation of a Hydropower Plant with Long Tail-Race Tunnel

In this paper, a hydroelectric power plant with long tail-race tunnel has been modelled for assessing its contribution to secondary regulation reserve. Cavitation problems, caused by the discharge conduit length, are expected downstream the turbine where low pressure appears during regulation manoeuvres. Therefore, governor's gains should be selected taking into account these phenomena. On the other hand, regulation services bidden by the plant operator should fulfil TSO (Transmission System Operator) quality requirements. A methodology for tuning governor PI gains is proposed and applied to a Hydro power plant in pre-design phase in northwest area of Spain. The PI gains adjustment proposed provides a proper plant response, according to some established indexes, while avoiding cavitation phenomena.

Integrated plant monitoring to improve plant operation strategy and results

The more and more demanding conditions in the power generation sector requires to apply all the available technologies to optimize processes and reduce costs. An integrated asset management strategy, combining technical analysis and operation and maintenance management can help to improve plant performance, flexibility and reliability. In order to deploy such a model it is necessary to combine plant data and specific equipment condition information, with different systems devoted to analyze performance and equipment condition, and take advantage of the results to support operation and maintenance decisions. This model that has been dealt in certain detail for electricity transmission and distribution networks, is not yet broadly extended in the power generation sector, as proposed in this study for the case of a combined power plant. Its application would turn in direct benefit for the operation and maintenance and for the interaction to the energy market

Impact assessment of an integrated approach for thermal power generation plants asset management in the current energy market

El sector energético, en España en particular, y de forma similar en los principales países de Europa, cuenta con una significativa sobrecapacidad de generación, debido al rápido y significativo crecimiento de las energías renovables en los últimos diez años y la reducción de la demanda energética, como consecuencia de la crisis económica. Esta situación ha hecho que las centrales térmicas de generación de electricidad, y en concreto los ciclos combinados de gas, operen con un factor de utilización extremadamente bajo, del orden del 10%. Además de la reducción de ingresos, esto supone para las plantas trabajar continuamente fuera del punto de diseño, provocando una significativa pérdida de rendimiento y mayores costes de explotación. En este escenario, cualquier contribución que ayude a mejorar la eficiencia y la condición de los equipos, es positivamente considerada. La gestión de activos está ganando relevancia como un proceso multidisciplinar e integrado, tal y como refleja la reciente publicación de las normas ISO 55000:2014. Como proceso global e integrado, la gestión de activos requiere el manejo de diversos procesos y grandes volúmenes de información, incluso en tiempo real. Para ello es necesario utilizar tecnologías de la información y aplicaciones de software. Esta tesis desarrolla un concepto integrado de gestión de activos (Integrated Plant Management – IPM) aplicado a centrales de ciclo combinado y una metodología para estimar el beneficio aportado por el mismo. Debido a las incertidumbres asociadas a la estimación del beneficio, se ha optado por un análisis probabilístico coste-beneficio. Así mismo, el análisis cuantitativo se ha completado con una validación cualitativa del beneficio aportado por las tecnologías incorporadas al concepto de gestión integrada de activos, mediante una entrevista realizada a expertos del sector de generación de energía. Los resultados del análisis coste-beneficio son positivos, incluso en el desfavorable escenario con un factor de utilización de sólo el 10% y muy prometedores para factores de utilización por encima del 30%. ABSTRACT The energy sector particularly in Spain, and in a similar way in Europe, has a significant overcapacity due to the big growth of the renewable energies in the last ten years, and it is seriously affected by the demand decrease due to the economic crisis. That situation has forced the thermal plants and in particular, the combined cycles to operate with extremely low annual average capacity factors, very close to 10%. Apart from the incomes reduction, working in out-of-design conditions, means getting a worse performance and higher costs than expected. In this scenario, anything that can be done to improve the efficiency and the equipment condition is positively received. Asset Management, as a multidisciplinary and integrated process, is gaining prominence, reflected in the recent publication of the ISO 55000 series in 2014. Dealing Asset Management as a global, integrated process needs to manage several processes and significant volumes of information, also in real time, that requires information technologies and software applications to support it. This thesis proposes an integrated asset management concept (Integrated Plant Management-IPM) applied to combined cycle power plants and develops a methodology to assess the benefit that it can provide. Due to the difficulties in getting deterministic benefit estimation, a statistical approach has been adopted for the cot-benefit analysis. As well, the quantitative analysis has been completed with a qualitative validation of the technologies included in the IPM and their contribution to key power plant challenges by power generation sector experts. The cost- benefit analysis provides positive results even in the negative scenario of annual average capacity factor close to 10% and is promising for capacity factors over 30%.

Fresnel-based modular solar fields for performance/cost optimization in solar thermal power plants: A comparison with parabolic trough collectors.

Linear Fresnel collectors are identified as a technology that should play a main role in order to reduce cost of Concentrating Solar Power. An optical and thermal analysis of the different blocks of the solar power plant is carried out, where Fresnel arrays are compared with the most extended linear technology: parabolic trough collectors. It is demonstrated that the optical performance of Fresnel array is very close to that of PTC, with similar values of maximum flux intensities. In addition, if the heat carrier fluid flows in series by the tubes of the receiver, relatively high thermal efficiencies are achieved. Thus, an annual solar to electricity efficiency of 19% is expected, which is similar to the state of the art in PTCs; this is done with a reduction of costs, thanks to lighter structures, that drives to an estimation of LCOE of around 6.5 c€/kWh.

The use of geographic information systems for the optimal location of biomass power plants in the Madrid Community (Spain)

This article has been extracted from the results of a thesis entitled “Potential bioelectricity production of the Madrid Community Agricultural Regions based on rye and triticale biomass.” The aim was, first, to quantify the potential of rye (Secale Cereale L.) and triticale ( Triticosecale Aestivum L.) biomass in each of the Madrid Community agricultural regions, and second, to locate the most suitable areas for the installation of power plants using biomass. At least 17,339.9 t d.m. of rye and triticale would be required to satisfy the biomass needs of a 2.2 MW power plant, (considering an efficiency of 21.5%, 8,000 expected operating hours/year and a biomass LCP of 4,060 kcal/kg for both crops), and 2,577 ha would be used (which represent 2.79% of the Madrid Community fallow dry land surface). Biomass yields that could be achieved in Madrid Community using 50% of the fallow dry land surface (46,150 ha representing 5.75% of the Community area), based on rye and triticale crops, are estimated at 84,855, 74,906, 70,109, 50,791, 13,481, and 943 t annually for the Campiña, Vegas, Sur Occidental, Área Metropolitana, Lozoya-Somosierra, and Guadarrama regions. The latter represents a bioelectricity potential of 10.77, 9.5, 8.9, 6.44, 1.71, and 0.12 MW, respectively.

Emulation of an OWC Ocean Energy Plant With PMSG and Irregular Wave Model

Ocean energy is a promising resource for renewable electricity generation that presents many advantages, such as being more predictable than wind energy, but also some disadvantages such as large and slow amplitude variations in the generated power. This paper presents a hardware-in-the-loop prototype that allows the study of the electric power profile generated by a wave power plant based on the oscillating water column (OWC) principle. In particular, it facilitates the development of new solutions to improve the intermittent profile of the power fed into the grid or the test of the OWC behavior when facing a voltage dip. Also, to obtain a more realistic model behavior, statistical models of real waves have been implemented.