Evaluation of the in vitro activity of cefepime compared to other broad-spectrum cephalosporins against clinical isolates from eighteen Brazilian hospitals by using the Etest

The in vitro activity of cefepime was compared to that of ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, and cefotaxime in a multicenter study involving 10 clinical microbiology laboratories and clinical isolates from 18 Brazilian hospitals from 7 cities (4 states). A total of 982 isolates consecutively collected between December 1995 and March 1996 were susceptibility tested by using Etest and following the NCCLS procedures for agar diffusion tests. The cefepime spectrum was broader than that of the other broad-spectrum cephalosporins against both Gram-negative rods and Gram-positive cocci. Cefepime tons particularly move active against Enterobacter sp. (MIC90, 2 mu g/ml), Serratia sp. (MIC90, 2 mu g/ml) and oxacillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MIC90, 3 mu g/ml). Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, cefepime (MIC90 16 mu g/ml) was slightly more active than ceftazidime (MIC90 32 mu g/ml) and 8- to 16-fold more active than ceftriaxone or cefotaxime (MIC90 >256 mu g/ml). Our results show that nosocomial bacteria, especially Gram-negative rods, have a high rate of cephalosporin resistance in Brazil. However, part of these resistant bacteria remains susceptible to cefepime. The Etest was shown to be an excellent method for multicenter studies of the in vitro evaluation of new antimicrobial agents. (C) 1997 Elsevier B.V.

Changes in the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics after cefepime shortage: a time series analysis

The original cefepime product was withdrawn from the Swiss market in January 2007 and replaced by a generic 10 months later. The goals of the study were to assess the impact of this cefepime shortage on the use and costs of alternative broad-spectrum antibiotics, on antibiotic policy, and on resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa toward carbapenems, ceftazidime, and piperacillin-tazobactam. A generalized regression-based interrupted time series model assessed how much the shortage changed the monthly use and costs of cefepime and of selected alternative broad-spectrum antibiotics (ceftazidime, imipenem-cilastatin, meropenem, piperacillin-tazobactam) in 15 Swiss acute care hospitals from January 2005 to December 2008. Resistance of P. aeruginosa was compared before and after the cefepime shortage. There was a statistically significant increase in the consumption of piperacillin-tazobactam in hospitals with definitive interruption of cefepime supply and of meropenem in hospitals with transient interruption of cefepime supply. Consumption of each alternative antibiotic tended to increase during the cefepime shortage and to decrease when the cefepime generic was released. These shifts were associated with significantly higher overall costs. There was no significant change in hospitals with uninterrupted cefepime supply. The alternative antibiotics for which an increase in consumption showed the strongest association with a progression of resistance were the carbapenems. The use of alternative antibiotics after cefepime withdrawal was associated with a significant increase in piperacillin-tazobactam and meropenem use and in overall costs and with a decrease in susceptibility of P. aeruginosa in hospitals. This warrants caution with regard to shortages and withdrawals of antibiotics.

Characterisation and clinical features of Enterobacter cloacae bloodstream infections occurring at a tertiary care university hospital in Switzerland: is cefepime adequate therapy?

Despite many years of clinical experience with cefepime, data regarding the outcome of patients suffering from bloodstream infections (BSIs) due to Enterobacter cloacae (Ecl) are scarce. To address the gap in our knowledge, 57 Ecl responsible for 51 BSIs were analysed implementing phenotypic and molecular methods (microarrays, PCRs for bla and other genes, rep-PCR to analyse clonality). Only two E. cloacae (3.5%) were ESBL-producers, whereas 34 (59.6%) and 18 (31.6%) possessed inducible (Ind-Ecl) or derepressed (Der-Ecl) AmpC enzymes, respectively. All isolates were susceptible to imipenem, meropenem, gentamicin and ciprofloxacin. Der-Ecl were highly resistant to ceftazidime and piperacillin/tazobactam (both MIC₉₀≥256 μg/mL), whereas cefepime retained its activity (MIC₉₀ of 3 μg/mL). rep-PCR indicated that the isolates were sporadic, but Ecl collected from the same patients were indistinguishable. In particular, three BSIs initially due to Ind-Ecl evolved (under ceftriaxone or piperacillin/tazobactam treatment) into Der-Ecl because of mutations or a deletion in ampD or insertion of IS4321 in the promoter. These last two mechanisms have never been described in Ecl. Mortality was higher for BSIs due to Der-Ecl than Ind-Ecl (3.8% vs. 29.4%; P=0.028) and was associated with the Charlson co-morbidity index (P=0.046). Using the following directed treatments, patients with BSI showed a favourable treatment outcome: cefepime (16/18; 88.9%); carbapenems (12/13; 92.3%); ceftriaxone (4/7; 57.1%); piperacillin/tazobactam (5/7; 71.4%); and ciprofloxacin (6/6; 100%). Cefepime represents a safe therapeutic option and an alternative to carbapenems to treat BSIs due to Ecl when the prevalence of ESBL-producers is low.

Cefepime is efficacious against penicillin- and quinolone-resistant pneumococci in experimental meningitis

In experimental rabbit meningitis, cefepime given at a dose of 100 mg/kg was associated with concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid of between 5.3 and 10 mg/L and a bactericidal activity of -0.61 +/- 0.24 Delta log(10) cfu/mL x h, similar to the standard regimen of ceftriaxone combined with vancomycin (-0.58 +/- 0.14 Delta log(10) cfu/mL x h) in the treatment of meningitis due to a penicillin- and quinolone-resistant pneumococcal mutant strain (MIC 4 mg/L). Compared with the penicillin-resistant parental strain, the penicillin- and quinolone-resistant mutant was killed more slowly by cefepime and ceftriaxone in time-killing assays in vitro over 8 h.

Efficacy of gatifloxacin alone and in combination with cefepime against penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in a rabbit meningitis model and in vitro

Gatifloxacin penetrated well into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (49 +/- 11%), measured by comparison of AUC(CSF)/AUC(serum), and showed good bactericidal activity (leading to a decrease of 0.75 +/- 0.17 log10 cfu/mL/h) in the treatment of experimental meningitis in rabbits caused by a penicillin-resistant pneumococcal strain (MIC 4 mg/L). It was significantly more effective than the standard regimen, ceftriaxone with vancomycin, which led to a decrease of 0.53 +/- 0.17 log10 cfu/mL/h. The addition of cefepime to gatifloxacin slightly improved the killing rates (giving a decrease of 0.84 +/- 0.14 log10 cfu/mL/h). In vitro, synergy was demonstrated between cefepime and gatifloxacin by the chequerboard method (fractional inhibitory concentration index = 0.5) and by viable counts over 8 h.

Evaluation of cefepime alone and in combination with vancomycin against penicillin-resistant pneumococci in the rabbit meningitis model and in vitro

Cefepime, a broad-spectrum, fourth-generation cephalosporin, showed excellent CSF penetration with levels ranging between 10 and 16 mg/L after two intravenous injections (100 mg/kg). The bactericidal activity of cefepime (-0.60 +/- 0.28 Deltalog(10) cfu/mL/h) was superior to that of ceftriaxone (-0.34 +/- 0.23 Deltalog(10) cfu/mL/h, P < 0.05) and vancomycin (-0.39 +/- 0.19 Deltalog(10) cfu/mL/h, P < 0.05) in the treatment of rabbits with meningitis caused by an isolate highly resistant to penicillin (MIC of penicillin G: 4 mg/L). The addition of vancomycin to both cephalosporins did not significantly increase the killing rate compared with monotherapies (P > 0.05). Similar results were obtained in time-killing experiments in vitro.

An MEKC assay for the therapeutic drug monitoring of cefepime

The development of a robust assay based on MEKC for cefepime in human serum and plasma with internal quality assurance is reported. Sample preparation comprises protein precipitation in the presence of SDS at pH 4.5. This is a gentle approach for which decomposition of cefepime during sample handling is negligible. After hydrodynamic sample injection of the supernatant, analysis occurs in a phosphate/borate buffer at pH 9.1 with 75 mM SDS using normal polarity and analyte detection at 257 nm. The MEKC run time interval and throughput are about 5 min and seven samples per hour, respectively. The calibration range for cefepime is 1-60 μg/mL, with 1 μg/mL being the LOQ. The performance of the assay with multilevel internal calibration was assessed with calibration and control samples. The assay is shown to be simple, inexpensive, reproducible, and robust. It was applied to determine cefepime levels in the sera of critically ill patients and to assess the instability of cefepime in patient and control samples. Our data revealed that serum containing cefepime can be stored at -20°C for a short time, whereas for long-term storage, samples have to be kept at -70°C.

Intermittent hemodialysis treatment in cefepime-induced neurotoxicity: Case report, pharmacokinetic modeling, and review of the literature

Cefepime is a broad-spectrum cephalosporin indicated for in-hospital treatment of severe infections. Acute neurotoxicity, an increasingly recognized adverse effect of this drug in an overdose, predominantly affects patients with reduced renal function. Although dialytic approaches have been advocated to treat this condition, their role in this indication remains unclear. We report the case of an 88-year-old female patient with impaired renal function who developed life-threatening neurologic symptoms during cefepime therapy. She was treated with two intermittent 3-hour high-flux, high-efficiency hemodialysis sessions. Serial pre-, post-, and peridialytic (pre- and postfilter) serum cefepime concentrations were measured. Pharmacokinetic modeling showed that this dialytic strategy allowed for serum cefepime concentrations to return to the estimated nontoxic range 15 hours earlier than would have been the case without an intervention. The patient made a full clinical recovery over the next 48 hours. We conclude that at least 1 session of intermittent hemodialysis may shorten the time to return to the nontoxic range in severe clinically patent intoxication. It should be considered early in its clinical course pending chemical confirmation, even in frail elderly patients. Careful dosage adjustment and a high index of suspicion are essential in this population.

In vivo Evolution of CMY-2 to CMY-33 β-Lactamase in Escherichia coli ST131: Characterization of an Acquired Extended-Spectrum AmpC (ESAC) Conferring Resistance to Cefepime.

Cefepime is frequently prescribed to treat infections caused by AmpC-producing Gram-negative bacteria. CMY-2 is the most common plasmid-mediated AmpC (pAmpC) β-lactamase. Unfortunately, CMY variants conferring enhanced cefepime resistance are reported. Here, we describe the evolution of CMY-2 to an extended-spectrum AmpC (ESAC) in clonally identical E. coli isolates obtained from a patient. The CMY-2-producing E. coli (CMY-2-Ec) was isolated from a wound. Thirty days later, one CMY-33-producing E. coli (CMY-33-Ec) was detected in bronchoalveolar lavage. Two weeks before the isolation of CMY-33-Ec, the patient received cefepime.CMY-33-Ec and CMY-2-Ec were identical by rep-PCR, being of hyperepidemic ST131, but showed different β-lactam MICs (e.g., cefepime 16 vs. ≤0.5 μg/ml). Identical CMY-2-Ec isolates were also found in a rectal swab. CMY-33 differs from CMY-2 by a Leu293-Ala294 deletion. Expressed in E. coli DH10B, both CMYs conferred resistance to ceftazidime (≥256 μg/ml), but cefepime MICs were higher for CMY-33 than CMY-2 (8 vs. 0.25 μg/ml). The kcat/Km or kinact/KI (μM(-1) s(-1)) indicated that CMY-33 possesses an ESBL-like spectrum compared to CMY-2 (cefoxitin: 0.2 vs. 0.4; ceftazidime: 0.2 vs. not measurable; cefepime: 0.2 vs. not measurable; tazobactam 0.0018 vs. 0.0009). Using molecular modeling, we show that a widened active site (∼4 Å shift) may play a significant role in enhancing cefepime hydrolysis. This is the first in vivo demonstration of a pAmpC that under cephalosporin treatment expands its substrate spectrum resembling an ESBL. The prevalence of CMY-2-Ec isolates is rapidly increasing worldwide, therefore awareness that cefepime treatment may select for resistant isolates is critical.

Therapeutic drug monitoring of cefepime with micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography: Assay improvement, quality assurance, and impact on patient drug levels

The improvement and performance of a micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography assay for cefepime in human serum and plasma with a 50 μm id fused-silica capillary elongated from 40 to 60 cm is reported. Sample preparation with dodecylsulfate protein precipitation at pH 4.5, the pH 9.1 separation medium and the applied voltage were as reported previously[16]. The change resulted in a significant lower current, higher resolution and increased detection time intervals. The performance of the assay with multi-level internal calibration was assessed with calibration and control samples. Quality assurance data of a two year period assessed under the new conditions demonstrated the robustness of the assay. In serum samples of patients who received both cefepime and sulfamethoxazole, cefepime could not be detected due to the inseparability of the two compounds. The presence of an interference can be recognized by an increased peak width (width > 0.2 min), the appearance of a shoulder or an unresolved double peak. The patient data gathered during a three year period reveal that introduction of therapeutic drug monitoring led to a 50% reduction of the median drug level. The data suggest that therapeutic drug monitoring can help to minimize the risk of major adverse reactions and to increase drug safety on an individual basis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Cefepime versus cefpirome: The importance of creatinine clearance

Standard dosage recommendations for beta-lactam antibiotics can result in very low drug levels in intensive care (IC) patients without renal dysfunction. We compared the pharmacokinetics of two fourth-generation cephalosporins, cefepime and cefpirome, and examined the relationship of drug clearance (CL) to creatinine clearance (CLCR). Two separate but similar pharmacokinetic studies (which used 2 g twice daily for each antibiotic) were conducted. Blood was sampled after an initial and a subsequent antibiotic dose. Drug plasma concentrations were measured, and pharmacokinetic analyses were conducted and compared. The pharmacokinetics of cefepime and cefpirome are similar in IC patients. Any differences in drug CL can largely be attributed to differences in CLCR. Despite normal plasma creatinine concentrations, 54% of patients' antibiotic concentrations were less than the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) (4 mg/L) for >20% of the dosing interval. Thirty-four percent of patients had CLCR >144 mL/min (20% higher than the expected maximum of 120 mL/min). Only CLCR was an independent predictor of antibiotic CL. Time above MIC was predicted only by CLCR. Some IC patients have a very large CLCR which results in very low levels of studied antibiotics. Either shortening the dosage interval or using continuous infusions would prevent low levels and keep troughs above the MIC for longer periods. In view of the lack of bedside measurement of cephalosporin levels, we suggest that more frequent use be made of CLCR to allow prediction of small concentrations clinically.

Acinetobacter spp.: resistência a antimicrobianos, genotipagem e dinâmica da colonização em CTI de um Hospital Universitário um ano de estudo

As espécies do gênero Acinetobacter são freqüentes no ambiente, mas nas últimas décadas vêm se destacando como patógenos hospitalares, especialmente Acinetobacter baumannii e as genoespécies 3 e 13TU, que formam o Complexo A. baumannii e cuja diferenciação só é possível pela utilização de metodologias moleculares. São associadas a diferentes apresentações clínicas, principalmente em pacientes internados em unidades de tratamento intensivo. Freqüentemente apresentam resistência a uma ampla variedade de antimicrobianos, incluindo os carbapenêmicos. Nestes casos as opções de tratamento podem, algumas vezes, limitar-se à polimixina. Esse trabalho objetivou avaliar a susceptibilidade a antimicrobianos, a diversidade genética e a dinâmica de colonização de Acinetobacter spp. isolados de pacientes internados no Centro de Tratamento Intensivo do Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto em um ano de estudo. Durante o ano de 2009 foram estudadas 76 amostras de Acinetobacter spp. isoladas de 34 pacientes, sendo a maioria obtida do trato respiratório (42,1 %), seguido de sangue (19,7%). Do total, 96,1% (73) foram identificadas como A. baumannii através da detecção do gene intrínseco blaOXA-51-like. Todas as amostras de A. baumannii foram produtoras da carbapenemase OXA-23 e apresentaram perfil de multirresistência, enquanto as três espécies não-baumannii foram sensíveis a todos os antimicrobianos testados. Não houve produto de amplificação para os genes blaOXA-24-like, blaOXA-58-like e blaOXA-143 pela técnica de PCR multiplex. As amostras apresentaram taxa de resistência maior que 70% para oito dos onze antimicrobianos testados: piperacilina-tazobactam, ceftazidima, cefotaxima, cefepime, amicacina, ciprofloxacina, imipenem e meropenem. A droga com melhor atividade in vitro foi a polimixina B. Quatro amostras foram resistentes com CIM determinada pelo E-test variando de 6 g/mL a 32 g/mL. Observou-se uma grande diversidade genética dentre as amostras, com dez grupos clonais identificados pelo PFGE. O grupo clonal B foi prevalente e persistente na unidade, representado por 32 (42,1%) amostras. Esse foi o mesmo clone descrito como o mais freqüente no Rio de Janeiro em estudo prévio. O clone associado a um surto ocorrido na mesma instituição entre 2007 e 2008 esteve presente em apenas sete (9,2%) amostras, tendo sido substituído pelo genótipo B. A análise prospectiva dos pacientes que permaneceram internados por pelo menos um mês mostrou casos de substituição clonal após terapia antimicrobiana, indicando a existência de reservatório ambiental dos genótipos circulantes. A colonização do trato respiratório por A. baumannii foi bastante comum, mas também foram observados casos de substituição de uma espécie não-baumannii por A. baumannii, além de infecção de corrente sanguínea por um genótipo diferente daquele responsável pela colonização. A presença de cepas resistentes à polimixina é preocupante, pois representa uma ameaça à terapia com a droga. A existência de um clone multirresistente disseminado no Rio de Janeiro, possivelmente pela transferência de pacientes e por profissionais que trabalham em mais de um hospital, aponta a necessidade de se adotar medidas de controle de infecção mais eficazes a fim de reduzir as taxas de morbidade e mortalidade. Além disso, a identificação de focos ambientais de dispersão das cepas epidêmicas parece essencial para garantir a eficácia das demais medidas de contenção de surtos

Características microbiológicas e clínicas das infecções por Acinetobacter spp. e Pseudomonas aeruginosa em Unidade de Terapia Intensiva Cardíaca de um Hospital Universitário do Rio de Janeiro

As infecções em cirurgia cardíaca ainda apresentam um cenário importante nas infecções associadas à assistência a saúde (IAAS), favorecendo ao paciente à aquisição de infecções por micro-organimos multirreristentes. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o perfil de resistência a antimicrobianos, verificar a presença de genes que codificam as enzimas dos tipos oxacilinases e metalo-beta-lactamases e descrever as características demográficas e clínicas dos pacientes colonziados/infectados por Acinetobacter spp. e P.aeruginosa internados no Centro de Terapia Intensiva Cardíaca do HUPE no período de 2005 a 2010. A maioria das 46 amostras de Acinetobacter spp e das 35 de P.aeruginosa foram de origem respiratória seguido de sangue. A maioria das amostras de A. baumannii apresentou altos percentuais de resistência a: ceftazidina, cefepime, piperacilina-sulbactam, ciprofloxacin, ceftriaxona e CIM ≥32 μg/mL para os carbapenêmicos. Uma amostra foi resistente a Polimixina B. O gene blaOXA-23 foi detectado em 65% das amostras e uma amostra apresentou o gene blaOXA-24. Não foram detectados os genes blaOXA-58-like e blaOXA-143. Para P. aeruginosa os percentuais de resistência para todos os antimicrobianos foram inferiores a 32%. Quatro amostras apresentaram resistência intermediária a polimixina B e nenhum gene de resistência foi detectado. Os prontuários dos pacientes foram analisados a fim de associar as características clínicas com os processos infecciosos identificados e seu desfecho clínico. Na análise por tipo de micro-organismo associado ao processo infeccioso à idade acima de 70 anos, DM e uso da ventilação mecânica por tempo prolongado foi maior no grupo dos pacientes que apresentaram infecção por P.aeruginosa. O IAM, a ICC em internações anteriores e suas complicações (choque cardiogênico e arritmia) tiveram impacto na mortalidade na série de pacientes (p<0,05). A insuficiência renal entre todas as comorbidades foi à única que teve associação com a mortalidade (OR= 8,3). Não houve associação entre a mortalidade e o micro-organismo que causou a infecção (Acinetobacter spp. p=0,3 e P.aeruginosa p=0,2) ou a resistência a carbapenêmicos (p=0,5). Foram observados dois casos de mediastinte por Acinetobacter spp. e dois por P. aeruginosa sendo um achado inédito no Brasil até o momento.

Estudo da resistência aos antimicrobianos em enterobactérias isoladas de mãos de manipuladores de alimentos em cantinas permissionárias de uma universidade no Município do Rio de Janeiro

A contaminação dos alimentos e transmissão de patógenos via manipuladores pode ocorrer se as condições de higiene, armazenamento e preparo não estiverem satisfatórios. Procedimentos inadequados de manipulação oferecem um perigo potencial à saúde pública devido ao alto risco de ocorrência de doenças de origem alimentar por microrganismos resistentes aos antimicrobianos. Neste estudo foram coletados swabs das mãos de 49 manipuladores de alimentos, isoladas e identificadas por metodologia convencional 244 enterobactérias de 7 cantinas permissionárias em uma Universidade do Município do Rio de Janeiro. Foram utilizados discos contendo os seguintes antimicrobianos: aztreonam, tobramicina, ceftazidima, cloranfenicol, tetraciclina, sulfa, amicacina, ampicilina e sulbactam, ciprofloxacina, gentamicina, cefalotina, cefepime, cefoxitina, imipenem, ampicilina, cefotaxima. A pesquisa de genes que codificam β-lactamases foi realizada pela Reação em Cadeia da Polimerase para os genes blaTEM, blaSHV, blaCTX, blaOXA-1 e blaCMY-2. As espécies mais prevalentes identificadas foram: Enterobacter cloacae (21,3%), Citrobacter braakii (15,2%), Escherichia coli (12,7%), Klebsiella pneumoniae subesp. Pneumoniae (12,2%). O perfil de resistência aos antimicrobianos revelou que 94 (38,5%) cepas identificadas apresentaram resistência a pelo menos dois antibióticos, 55 cepas (22,5%) a pelo menos um antibiótico, 34 cepas (13,9%) a três antibióticos, 14 cepas (5,7%) mostraram-se resistentes a quatro antibióticos. Uma cepa de E. cloacae mostrou resistência múltipla a dez antibióticos e 140 cepas (57,3%) foram resistentes simultaneamente a cefalotina e cefoxitina. Nenhuma cepa foi resistente ao aztreonam e a sulfa e apenas 01 foi resistente ao ciprofloxacina, 01 ao imipenem e 02 a cefotaxima. Foi identificado a presença do gene blaSHV em uma cepa de K. pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae. Este dado aponta para uma mudança no perfil dessas bactérias isoladas da comunidade que passam a ter características semelhantes com as de origem hospitalar. Os resultados alertam para um perigo à saúde dos consumidores e conseqüentemente à saúde pública, devido a presença de enterobactérias resistentes aos antimicrobianos nas mãos de manipuladores de alimentos.