Modified MLVA for genotyping Queensland invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae

Background Globally, over 800 000 children under five die each year from infectious diseases caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. To understand genetic relatedness between isolates, study transmission routes, assess the impact of human interventions e.g. vaccines, and determine infection sources, genotyping methods are required. The ‘gold standard’ genotyping method, Multi-Locus Sequence Typing (MLST), is useful for long-term and global studies. Another genotyping method, Multi-Locus Variable Number of Tandem Repeat Analysis (MLVA), has emerged as a more discriminatory, inexpensive and faster technique; however there is no universally accepted method and it is currently suitable for short-term and localised epidemiology studies. Currently Australia has no national MLST database, nor has it adopted any MLVA method for short-term or localised studies. This study aims to improve S. pneumoniae genotyping methods by modifying the existing MLVA techniques to be more discriminatory, faster, cheaper and technically less demanding than previously published MLVA methods and MLST. Methods Four different MLVA protocols, including a modified method, were applied to 317 isolates of serotyped invasive S. pneumoniae isolated from sterile body sites of Queensland children under 15 years from 2007–2012. MLST was applied to 202 isolates for comparison. Results The modified MLVA4 is significantly more discriminatory than the ‘gold standard’ MLST method. MLVA4 has similar discrimination compared to other MLVA techniques in this study). The failure to amplify particular loci in previous MLVA methods were minimised in MLVA4. Failure to amplify BOX-13 and Spneu19 were found to be serotype specific. Conclusion We have modified a highly discriminatory MLVA technique for genotyping Queensland invasive S. pneumoniae. MLVA4 has the ability to enhance our understanding of the pneumococcal epidemiology and the changing genetics of the pneumococcus in localised and short-term studies.

Análise do polimorfismo numérico de sequências repetitivas em múltiplos loci (MLVA) como instrumentos de avaliação da diversidade genética de Streptococcus pneumoniae do sorotipo 14

Streptococcus pneumoniae é um importante agente etiológico de infecções invasivas e não invasivas, incluindo meningite, pneumonia e otite média. A cápsula polissacarídica é o principal fator de virulência desse microrganismo, sendo também considerada um importante marcador em estudos epidemiológicos. Dentre os mais de 90 tipos capsulares conhecidos, o sorotipo 14 se destaca pela prevalência elevada em várias regiões, inclusive no Brasil. A avaliação da diversidade genética desse microrganismo também inclui a aplicação de métodos moleculares, como PFGE e MLST. Entretanto, essas metodologias são relativamente onerosas, consomem muito tempo e os resultados obtidos com a técnica de PFGE são de difícil comparação entre diferentes laboratórios. A técnica de análise do polimorfismo numérico de segmentos repetitivos em múltiplos loci [MLVA, do inglês Multiple Loci VTNR (Variable-Number Tandem Repeat) Analysis] se apresenta como uma alternativa, embora ainda necessite de padronização e avaliação mais ampla para a espécie em questão. No presente estudo, 60 amostras de Streptococcus pneumoniae pertencentes ao sorotipo 14, isoladas de diversas fontes clínicas, em diferentes locais e períodos de tempo, foram caracterizadas pelas técnicas de MLVA (baseada na análise de 18 loci distintos), MLST, PFGE e tipagem do gene pspA. O gene pspA2 predominou entre as amostras analisadas, seguido pelo gene pspA1. Os tipos de MLVA, perfis de PFGE, e STs encontrados apresentaram resultados, em geral, concordantes, indicando o elevado poder discriminatório da versão da técnica de MLVA empregada. Cinco complexos clonais (CC) de MLVA e cinco singletons puderam ser definidos. O CC de MLVA denominado de L7 foi o predominante, compreendendo 36,7% da amostragem estudada. O CC L7 mostrou-se relacionado com genes pspA da família 2, com o CC1 de MLST, com o CC Pen14-H de PFGE, e com a não susceptibilidade à penicilina, Entre os complexos clonais de MLST, o CC1 foi o prevalente e incluiu predominantemente o ST156, pertencente ao clone internacional Spain9V-3. O CC L3 e o singleton L17 de MLVA apresentaram-se associados ao CC de PFGE Eri14-A, a família 1 de PspA e ao CC2 de MLST, que por sua vez também estava relacionado com o clone internacional England14-9. O CC L15 de MLVA esteve associado ao CC de PFGE Pen14-A, ao gene pspA2, aos CC3 e CC4 de MLST e ao clone internacional do PMEN Tennessee14-18. A técnica de MLVA revelou-se significativamente mais discriminatória que as técnicas de PFGE e MLST, conforme exemplificado pela detecção de 21 perfis de MLVA, 13 perfis de PFGE e cinco STs, entre as 22 amostras pertencentes ao CC de MLVA L7. Uma versão de MLVA, compreendendo um painel com os oito loci de maior poder discriminatório, pôde ser proposta a partir da análise dos resultados obtidos. Estes aspectos, aliados ao menor tempo e custo de execução, indicam que a técnica de MLVA constitui uma alternativa importante e satisfatória para uso em estudos sobre a diversidade genética de S. pneumoniae.

Increased spread and replication efficiency of Listeria monocytogenes in organotypic brain-slices is related to multilocus variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) complex.

BACKGROUND Listeria (L.) monocytogenes causes fatal infections in many species including ruminants and humans. In ruminants, rhombencephalitis is the most prevalent form of listeriosis. Using multilocus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) we recently showed that L. monocytogenes isolates from ruminant rhombencephalitis cases are distributed over three genetic complexes (designated A, B and C). However, the majority of rhombencephalitis strains and virtually all those isolated from cattle cluster in MLVA complex A, indicating that strains of this complex may have increased neurotropism and neurovirulence. The aim of this study was to investigate whether ruminant rhombencephalitis strains have an increased ability to propagate in the bovine hippocampal brain-slice model and can be discriminated from strains of other sources. For this study, forty-seven strains were selected and assayed on brain-slice cultures, a bovine macrophage cell line (BoMac) and a human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line (Caco-2). They were isolated from ruminant rhombencephalitis cases (n = 21) and other sources including the environment, food, human neurolisteriosis cases and ruminant/human non-encephalitic infection cases (n = 26). RESULTS All but one L. monocytogenes strain replicated in brain slices, irrespectively of the source of the isolate or MLVA complex. The replication of strains from MLVA complex A was increased in hippocampal brain-slice cultures compared to complex C. Immunofluorescence revealed that microglia are the main target cells for L. monocytogenes and that strains from MLVA complex A caused larger infection foci than strains from MLVA complex C. Additionally, they caused larger plaques in BoMac cells, but not CaCo-2 cells. CONCLUSIONS Our brain slice model data shows that all L. monocytogenes strains should be considered potentially neurovirulent. Secondly, encephalitis strains cannot be conclusively discriminated from non-encephalitis strains with the bovine organotypic brain slice model. The data indicates that MLVA complex A strains are particularly adept at establishing encephalitis possibly by virtue of their higher resistance to antibacterial defense mechanisms in microglia cells, the main target of L. monocytogenes.

Genotyping streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a potentially deadly human pathogen associated with high morbidity, mortality and global economic burden. The universally used bacterial genotyping methods are multilocus sequence typing and pulsed field gel electrophoresis. However, another highly discriminatory, rapid and less expensive genotyping technique,multilocus variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA), has been developed. Unfortunately, no universal MLVA protocol exists, and some MLVA protocols do not amplify certain loci for all pneumococcal serotypes, leaving genotyping profiles incomplete. A number of other genotyping or characterization methods have been developed and will be discussed. This review examines the various protocols for genotyping S. pneumoniae and highlights the current direction technology and research is heading to understand this bacterium.

Investigating the population structure of Queensland invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in children: Using a modified multi-locus variable number of tandem repeat analysis and a novel minimum SNPs capsular typing method

This research investigated the use of DNA fingerprinting to characterise the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae or pneumococcus, and hence gain insight into the development of new vaccines or antibiotics. Different bacterial DNA fingerprinting methods were studied, and a novel method was developed and validated, which characterises different cell coatings that pneumococci produce. This method was used to study the epidemiology of pneumococci in Queensland before and after the introduction of the current pneumococcal vaccine. This study demonstrated that pneumococcal disease is highly prevalent in children under four years, that the bacteria can `switch' its cell coating to evade the vaccine, and that some DNA fingerprinting methods are more discriminatory than others. This has an impact on understanding which strains are more prone to cause invasive disease. Evidence of the excellent research findings have been published in high impact internationally refereed journals.

Caracterización Molecular Y Epidemiológica de Cepas Monofásicas de Salmonella Enterica

225 p.

Salmonella enterica-ren andui monofasikoen karakterizazio molekularra eta epidemiologikoa

219 p.

Enterococcus faecium: caracterização molecular de amostras isoladas no período anterior e posterior a emergência da resistência à vancomicina no Estado do Rio de Janeiro

Nas últimas décadas, Enterococcus resistentes à vancomicina tem se destacado no cenário hospitalar em todo mundo. A emergência da resistência à vancomicina no Estado do Rio de Janeiro foi registrada em 2000, na espécie Enterococcus faecalis. Em seguida, Enterococcus faecium passou a ser prevalente. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a diversidade genética das amostras de E. faecium sensíveis (VSEfm) e resistentes (VREfm) à vancomicina, isoladas em diferentes instituições de saúde do Estado do Rio de Janeiro no período de 1993 a 2008. As amostras bacterianas foram avaliadas por metodologia de eletroforese em campo pulsado (PFGE), após restrição com Smal, análise do polimorfismo numérico de segmentos repetitivos (MLVA) e tipagem por sequenciamento de múltiplos loci (MLST); além da detecção de marcadores fenotípicos, como a resistência à ampicilina e à ciprofloxacina, e genotípicos, como determinantes genéticos de virulência, que estão vinculados a um complexo clonal globalmente disperso (CC17). A diversidade de Tn1546 (que alberga o conjunto gênico vanA) foi determinada por amplificação e restrição com ClaI. Um grupo clonal prevalente foi observado pela metodologia de PFGE e agrupou amostras isoladas, principalmente, no período de 2004 a 2006, estando disseminado por diversas instituições de saúde do Estado, indicando transmissão inter- e intra-hospitalar. A avaliação por MLVA identificou dois MTs prevalentes dentre as amostras VREfm: MT12 relacionado à maioria das amostras dos principais grupos clonais identificados por PFGE e, o MT159 que apresentou frequência aumentada no ano de 2008. A análise por MLST destacou o ST78 associado aos principais grupos clonais definidos por PFGE, bem como, ao MT12. Também foi observada correlação entre o ST412 associado ao grupo clonal formado por apenas amostras de 2008 e o MT159. Foi notório por MLST que as amostras VREfm do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, no período do estudo, estiveram relacionadas CC17, juntamente com algumas amostras VSEfm. Entretanto, os principais marcadores de resistência e de virulência, característicos de CC17, estiveram mais relacionados as amostras VREfm do que as VSEfm, como resistência à ampicilina e à ciprofloxacina; e a presença do gene esp e do alelo purK1. A identificação de VSEfm pertencentes ao CC17 sugerem que amostras já adaptadas ao ambiente hospitalar, podem ter adquirdo o determinante de resistência vanA, facilitando a emergência de amostras de VREfm. Adicionalmente, nossos dados sugerem uma modificação no cenário de amostras VREfm no Rio de Janeiro. Pois a dominância de um grupo clonal prevalente (PFGE- X; MT12; ST78) pode estar sendo substituída pela possível emergência de um novo grupo clonal, que foi característico de amostras mais recentes (PFGE-XV; MT159; ST412), apontando assim, para um novo curso na epidemiologia dos E. faecium no Estado. Um perfil de restrição prevalente de Tn1546 idêntico ao protótipo foi observado, apontando que a disseminação da resistência à vancomicina ocorreu por também por transferência horizontal. Entretanto, alterações do tipo deleção e presença de elementos de inserção com aproximadamente 2 kb foram observadas em um número reduzido das amostras. A incongruência no genótipo vanA, em relação ao fenótipo, foi observado para uma amostra. Considera-se fundamental o acompanhamento da disseminação de VREfm, particularmente diante da elevada frequência de amostras pertencentes a um complexo clonal que conjuga multirresistência com virulência, com elevado potencial de adaptabilidade e disseminação.

Molecular tools in the diagnostic and epidemiology of infections caused by members of Mycobacterium avium Complex

Mycobacterium avium Complex (MAC) comprises microorganisms that affect a wide range of animals including humans. The most relevant are Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis (Mah) with a high impact on public health affecting mainly immunocompromised individuals and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (Map) causing paratuberculosis in animals with a high economic impact worldwide. In this work, we characterized 28 human and 67 porcine Mah isolates and evaluated the relationship among them by Multiple-Locus Variable number tandem repeat Analysis (MLVA). We concluded that Mah population presented a high genetic diversity and no correlations were inferred based on geographical origin, host or biological sample. For the first time in Portugal Map strains, from asymptomatic bovine faecal samples were isolated highlighting the need of more reliable and rapid diagnostic methods for Map direct detection. Therefore, we developed an IS900 nested real time PCR with high sensitivity and specificity associated with optimized DNA extraction methodologies for faecal and milk samples. We detected 83% of 155 faecal samples from goats, cattle and sheep, and 26% of 98 milk samples from cattle, positive for Map IS900 nested real time PCR. A novel SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) assay to Map characterization based on a Whole Genome Sequencing analysis was developed to elucidate the genetic relationship between strains. Based on sequential detection of 14 SNPs and on a decision tree we were able to differentiate 14 phylogenetic groups with a higher discriminatory power compared to other typing methods. A pigmented Map strain was isolated and characterized evidencing for the first time to our knowledge the existence of pigmented Type C strains. With this work, we intended to improve the ante mortem direct molecular detection of Map, to conscientiously aware for the existence of Map animal infections widespread in Portugal and to contribute to the improvement of Map and Mah epidemiological studies.

Étude de la diversité génétique d’isolats québécois de Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae provenant d’infections simples ou mixtes et caractérisation de leur sensibilité aux antimicrobiens

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae est l’agent causal de la pneumonie enzootique. On le retrouve dans plusieurs élevages de porcs à travers le monde. Même si ce micro-organisme est présent dans plusieurs troupeaux canadiens, peu d’informations sont présentement disponibles sur les isolats québécois. Un total de 160 poumons de porcs possédant des lésions de pneumonie ont été récupérés à l’abattoir, mis en culture et testés par PCR pour M. hyopneumoniae et Mycoplasma hyorhinis. D’autres pathogènes bactériens communs du porc et les virus du syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin (VSRRP), de l’influenza et le circovirus porcin de type 2 (CVP2) ont été également testés. Quatre-vingt-dix pourcent des échantillons étaient positifs pour M. hyopneumoniae et 5.6% l’étaient seulement pour M. hyorhinis. Dans ces échantillons positifs pour M. hyopneumoniae, la concentration de ce mycoplasme variait de 1.17 x 105 à 3.37 x 109 génomes/mL. Vingt-cinq poumons positifs en culture ou par PCR en temps réel pour M. hyopneumoniae ont été sélectionnés, parmi ceux-ci 10 étaient en coinfection avec Pasteurella multocida, 12 avec Streptococcus suis, 9 avec CVP2 et 2 avec le VSRRP. Les analyses des nombres variables de répétitions en tandem à de multiples loci (MLVA) et PCR-polymorphisme de longueur de fragments de restriction (PCR-RFLP) de M. hyopneumoniae ont démontré une forte diversité des isolats de terrain. Par contre, il semble y avoir plus d’homogénéité à l’intérieur d’un même élevage. L’analyse MLVA a également démontré que près de la moitié des isolats possédaient moins de 55% d’homologie avec les souches vaccinales et de référence utilisées dans la présente étude. L’absence d’amplification du locus 1 de M. hyopneumoniae en MLVA a été significativement associée à une baisse de la concentration de bactérie et de la sévérité des lésions. Pour tous les isolats de M. hyopneumoniae, des concentrations minimales inhibitrices (CMI) de faibles à intermédiaires ont été obtenues envers tous les antimicrobiens testés. Les isolats possédant des CMI intermédiaires envers les tétracyclines, les macrolides et les lincosamides ont été testés pour la présence des gènes de résistance tetM, ermB et pour des mutations ponctuelles dans les gènes des protéines L4, L22 et de l’ARNr 23S. Aucun de ces gènes n’a été détecté mais la mutation ponctuelle G2057A a été identifiée. Cette mutation est responsable de la résistance intrinsèque de M. hyopneumoniae face aux macrolides à 14 carbones. Ces résultats indiquent qu’il ne semble pas y avoir de résistance acquise aux antimicrobiens parmi ces isolats. En conclusion, cette recherche a permis d’obtenir de nouvelles données scientifiques sur les isolats québécois de M. hyopneumoniae.

Étude sur le Staphylococcus aureus résistant à la méthicilline chez le porc à l'abattoir au Québec, Canada

Le Staphylococcus aureus résistant à la méthicilline (SARM) est un pathogène important qui a été identifié comme agent d‟infection chez les animaux d‟élevage et les travailleurs exposés à ces animaux. Au Canada, très peu d‟informations sont disponibles concernant les SARMs d‟origine porcine. L‟objectif de cette étude était de déterminer la prévalence des SARMs provenant de porcs à l‟abattoir, de caractériser leur résistance aux antibiotiques ainsi que d‟évaluer le niveau de séroconversion des porcs envers le S. aureus chez les animaux porteurs ou non du SARM. Un total de 107 isolats ont été identifiés positifs aux SARMs sur 660 échantillons. La prévalence de SARMs à l‟abattoir A était de 30,8% et de 23,8% à l‟abattoir B. La susceptibilité aux antibiotiques a été déterminée en utilisant la méthode de micro-dilution de Sensititre. Tous les isolats ont démontré une sensibilité envers la ciprofloxacine, la gatifloxacine, la gentamicine, la lévofloxacine, le linézolide, la quinupristine/dalfopristine, la rifampicine, la streptomycine, le triméthoprime/sulfaméthoxazole et la vancomycine. De la résistance a été observée envers la daptomycine (0,93%), l‟érythromycine (29%), la clindamycine (29%), la tétracycline (98,1%). De plus, 30% des SARMs isolés étaient résistants à plus de deux antibiotiques autres que les β-lactamines. Par typage, deux clones prédominants ont été obtenus ainsi que deux types de SCCmec (type V et possiblement un nouveau type comprenant les cassettes III et IVb). 15 clones ont été identifiés par typage MLVA, comprenant les clones prédominants VI (40.1%; 43/107) et XI (17.7%; 19/107). Deux souches de SARMs ont été caractérisées par biopuce à ADN et des gènes d‟antibiorésistance, de typage (SCCmec et MLST) et de virulence ont été identifiés. Sans considération pour le site de colonisation, les porcs SA-/MRSA- (n=34) et les porcs SA+ (n=194) montrent, respectivement, des taux de séroconversion de 20.6% et 32.5%. Les porcs colonisés par un SARM à un site de iv prélèvement et non colonisés par un SA à l‟autre site (n=18) montrent une séroconversion (5.6%) significativement (P < 0.05) plus faible comparativement aux porcs colonisés par SA à un ou deux sites de prélèvement et n‟ayant pas de SARM. Nos résultats démontrent que les porcs provenant d‟abattoir peuvent être colonisés par des SARMs multi-résistants aux antibiotiques. De plus, ces SARMs sont possiblement capable de coloniser leurs hôtes sans stimuler la production d‟anticorps et ce par l‟atténuation de la réponse immunitaire ou par la colonisation de porcs qui sont moins immunocompétents.

Genetic diversity of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae isolates of abattoir pigs.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, the causative agent of porcine enzootic pneumonia, is present in swine herds worldwide. However, there is little information on strains infecting herds in Canada. A total of 160 swine lungs with lesions suggestive of enzootic pneumonia originating from 48 different farms were recovered from two slaughterhouses and submitted for gross pathology. The pneumonic lesion scores ranged from 2% to 84%. Eighty nine percent of the lungs (143/160) were positive for M. hyopneumoniae by real-time PCR whereas 10% (16/160) and 8.8% (14/160) were positive by PCR for M. hyorhinis and M. flocculare, respectively. By culture, only 6% of the samples were positive for M. hyopneumoniae (10/160). Among the selected M. hyopneumoniae-positive lungs (n = 25), 9 lungs were co-infected with M. hyorhinis, 9 lungs with PCV2, 2 lungs with PRRSV, 12 lungs with S. suis and 10 lungs with P. multocida. MLVA and PCR-RFLP clustering of M. hyopneumoniae revealed that analyzed strains were distributed among three and five clusters respectively, regardless of severity of lesions, indicating that no cluster is associated with virulence. However, strains missing a specific MLVA locus showed significantly less severe lesions and lower numbers of bacteria. MLVA and PCR-RFLP analyses also showed a high diversity among field isolates of M. hyopneumoniae with a greater homogeneity within the same herd. Almost half of the field isolates presented less than 55% homology with selected vaccine and reference strains.

Isolation of Leptospira spp. from a man living in a rural area of the Municipality of Cruz Alta, RS, Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Epidemiologia da infecção por Leptospira spp. em áreas rurais nos biomas brasileiros

Pós-graduação em Medicina Veterinária - FCAV