Transition metal ion activation of DNA binding by the diphtheria tox repressor requires the formation of stable homodimers.

The diphtheria tox repressor (DtxR) is a transition metal ion-dependent regulatory element that controls the expression of diphtheria toxin and several genes involved in the synthesis of siderophores in Corynebacterium diphtheriae. In the presence of transition metal ions apo-DtxR becomes activated and specifically binds to its target DNA sequences. We demonstrate by glutaraldehyde cross-linking that monomeric apo-DtxR is in weak equilibrium with a dimeric form and that upon addition of activating metal ions to the reaction mixture a dimeric complex is stabilized. Addition of the DNA-binding-defective mutant apo-DtxR(delta 1-47) to apo-DtxR in the absence of transition metal ions inhibits conversion of the apo-repressor to its activated DNA-binding form. We also show that the binding of Ni2+ to both apo-DtxR and apo-DtxR(delta 1-47) is cooperative and that upon ion binding there is a conformational change in the environment of the indole ring moiety of Trp-104. For the wild-type repressor the consequences of this conformational change include a shift in equilibrium toward dimer formation and activation of target DNA binding by the repressor. We conclude that the formation of DtxR homodimers is mediated through a protein-protein interaction domain that is also activated on metal ion binding.

Targeting the actin cytoskeleton in HER2+ metastatic cancer cells using a macrolide toxin

Breast and ovarian cancers are among the leading causes of cancer related deaths in women worldwide. In a subset of these cancers, dysregulation of the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) leads to overexpression of the receptor on the cell surface. Previous studies have found that these HER2+ cancers show high rates of progression to metastatic disease. Metastasis is driven by cytoskeletal rearrangements that produce filamentous actin (F-actin) based structures that penetrate and degrade extracellular matrix to facilitate tumour invasion. Advancements in targeted therapy have made F-actin an attractive target for the development of new cancer therapies. In this thesis, we tested the actin-depolymerizing macrolide toxin, Mycalolide B (MycB), as a potential warhead for a novel antibody drug conjugate (ADC) to target highly metastatic HER2+ breast and ovarian cancers. We found that MycB treatment of HER2+ breast (SKBR3, MDA-MB-453) and ovarian (SKOV3) cancer cells led to loss of viability (IC50 values ≤ 64 nM). Sub-lethal doses of MycB treatment caused potent suppression of leading edge protrusions, migration and invasion potential of HER2+ cancer cells (IC50 ≤ 32 nM). In contrast, other F-actin based processes such as receptor endocytosis were less sensitive to MycB treatment. MycB treatment skewed the size of endocytic vesicles, which may reflect defects in F-actin based vesicle motility or maturation. Given that HER2+ cancers have been effectively targeted by Trastuzumab and Trastuzumab-based ADCs, we tested the effects of a combination of Trastuzumab and MycB on cell migration and invasion. We found that MycB/ Trastuzumab combination treatments inhibited motility of SKOV3 cells to a greater degree than either treatment alone. Altogether, our results provide proof-of-principle that actin toxins such as MycB can be used as a novel class of warheads for ADCs to target and combat highly metastatic cancers.

Paramedic knowledge of infectious disease aetiology and transmission in an Australian Emergency Medical System

Introduction: Paramedics and other emergency health workers are exposed to infectious disease particularly when undertaking exposure-prone procedures as a component of their everyday practice. This study examined paramedic knowledge of infectious disease aetiology and transmission in the pre-hospital care environment.--------- Methods: A mail survey of paramedics from an Australian ambulance service (n=2274) was conducted.--------- Results: With a response rate of 55.3% (1258/2274), the study demonstrated that paramedic knowledge of infectious disease aetiology and modes of transmission was poor. Of the 25 infectious diseases included in the survey, only three aetiological agents were correctly identified by at least 80% of respondents. The most accurate responses for aetiology of individual infectious diseases were for HIV/AIDS (91.4%), influenza (87.4%), and hepatitis B (85.7%). Poorest results were observed for pertussis, infectious mononucleosis, leprosy, dengue fever, Japanese B encephalitis and vancomycin resistant enterococcus (VRE), all with less than half the sample providing a correct response. Modes of transmission of significant infectious diseases were also assessed. Most accurate responses were found for HIV/AIDS (85.8%), salmonella (81.9%) and influenza (80.1%). Poorest results were observed for infectious mononucleosis, diphtheria, shigella, Japanese B encephalitis, vancomycin resistant enterococcus, meningococcal meningitis, rubella and infectious mononucleosis, with less than a third of the sample providing a correct response.--------- Conclusions: Results suggest that knowledge of aetiology and transmission of infectious disease is generally poor amongst paramedics. A comprehensive in-service education infection control programs for paramedics with emphasis on infectious disease aetiology and transmission is recommended.

An egg apparatus-specific enhancer of Arabidopsis, identified by enhancer detection

Despite a central role in angiosperm reproduction, few gametophyte-specific genes and promoters have been isolated, particularly for the inaccessible female gametophyte (embryo sac). Using the Ds-based enhancer-detector line ET253, we have cloned an egg apparatus-specific enhancer (EASE) from Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). The genomic region flanking the Ds insertion site was further analyzed by examining its capability to control gusA and GFP reporter gene expression in the embryo sac in a transgenic context. Through analysis of a 5' and 3' deletion series in transgenic Arabidopsis, the sequence responsible for egg apparatus-specific expression was delineated to 77 bp. Our data showed that this enhancer is unique in the Arabidopsis genome, is conserved among different accessions, and shows an unusual pattern of sequence variation. This EASE works independently of position and orientation in Arabidopsis but is probably not associated with any nearby gene, suggesting either that it acts over a large distance or that a cryptic element was detected. Embryo-specific ablation in Arabidopsis was achieved by transactivation of a diphtheria toxin gene under the control of the EASE. The potential application of the EASE element and similar control elements as part of an open-source biotechnology toolkit for apomixis is discussed.

Resposta adaptativa e efeitos das substâncias oxidantes - K2TeO3, H2O2 e paraquate - na produção de biofilme de amostras de Corynebacterium diphtheriae isolados de origens diversas

A difteria é uma doença imunoprevinível que permanece endêmica em diversas regiões do mundo. Além dos casos de difteria clássica, doenças invasivas como endocardite, osteomielite, pneumonia e infecções relacionadas à cateter, tem acometido indivíduos adultos parcialmente imunizados. A natureza multifatorial dos fatores de virulência que favorecem a formação de biofilme e sobrevivência em macrófagos tem sido evidenciada para o Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Entretanto, escassos são os trabalhos que investigaram a influência de condições ambientais na virulência do patógeno. Uma vez que agentes oxidantes são capazes de gerar radicais livres e levar ao estresse oxidativo que, consequentemente, podem resultar em resposta adaptativa e influenciar na formação do biofilme e na virulência bacteriana, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo geral avaliar os efeitos do peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), paraquate e telurito de potássio (K2TeO3) em propriedades biológicas de cepas de C. diphtheriae de origens diversas. Os resultados demonstraram que as amostras de C. diphtheriae apresentaram níveis de resistência ao K2TeO3, H2O2 e paraquate, porém em intensidades variadas e independentes da capacidade de produção da toxina diftérica. Algumas amostras, toxinogênicas ou não, isoladas do trato respiratório superior demonstraram resposta adaptativa para H2O2 passando, portanto, a expressar resistência aumentada após uma prévia exposição ao referido agente oxidante. C. diphtheriae não exibiu respostas adaptativas para o K2TeO3 e paraquate. C. diphtheriae foi capaz de produzir biofilme na superfície de substratos abióticos de natureza hidrofílica (vidro) e hidrofóbica (poliestireno) na presença de agentes oxidantes K2TeO3, H2O2 e paraquate. A presença dos agentes oxidantes influenciou na formação de biofilme de algumas amostras. O paraquate inibiu a produção de biofilme de todas amostras. A amostra TR241 teve a produçao de biofilme inibida na presença dos três agentes oxidantes analisados. Por outro lado, a presença de H2O2 e do K2TeO3 estimulou a produção de biofilme de algumas amostras. Para todas as amostras de C. diphtheriae testadas, independentes das origens, biotipos e da capacidade de produção de toxina diftérica, os ensaios moleculares indicaram a presença de sequências gênicas cromossômicas homólogas, codificadores da proteína DIP 0906 (TeR) e da proteína DIP 1421 (OxyR), envolvidos na resistência ao telurito e na proteção contra o estresse oxidativo, respectivamente. Não foi observada correlação da suscetibilidade e a resposta adaptativa aos agentes oxidantes com as diferentes características bacterianas: origem, sítio de isolamento, produção de toxina diftérica, metabolização de sacarose e produção de biofilme. Em conclusão, o estresse oxidativo foi capaz de influenciar fatores de virulência do C. diphtheriae, como a capacidade de produçao de biofilme, que podem estar contribuindo para a patogenia da difteria clássica assim como de doenças invasivas causadas por cepas atoxinogênicas.

Diversidade de respostas de Corynebacterium diphtheriae frente a agentes oxidantes: resistência, adaptação e envolvimento do determinante de resistência ao telurito (TeR) e do sistema OxyR na virulência bacteriana

Corynebacterium diphtheriae é um importante patógeno humano e agente causal da difteria. Embora seja observada uma redução mundial no número de casos da doença, a difteria permanece endêmica em muitos países e surtos são esporadicamente notificados. No Brasil, o último surto ocorreu no estado no Maranhão e revelou mudanças em aspectos clínico-epidemiológicos da doença. Diferentemente da maioria das cepas de difteria brasileiras, que pertencem ao biovar mitis, nesse surto dois diferentes pulsotipos de C. diphtheriae biovar intermedius foram isolados. Além disso, sinais patognomônicos da doença não foram relatados em parte dos casos. C. diphtheriae também vem sendo relacionado com quadros de infecções invasivas, apesar de ser reconhecido como patógeno tipicamente extracelular. Em conjunto, estas mudanças no perfil das infecções por C. diphtheriae sugerem a existência de outros fatores de virulência além da produção da toxina diftérica. Neste sentindo, foram realizadas análises de tipagem molecular e de genômica comparativa para avaliar a diversidade genética e o potencial de virulência de cepas de C. diphtheriae isoladas de difteria clássica e infecções invasivas. Os resultados obtidos demonstram a circulação de diferentes clones invasores no Brasil. Além disso, revelaram diferenças marcantes na presença e na composição de ilhas de patogenicidade entre as amostras, bem como nos genes sob regulação do DtxR e nas sequências dos corinefagos integradas ao cromossomo bacteriano. Uma vez que o potencial invasor bacteriano e a persistência no ambiente podem estar relacionados à tolerância ao estresse oxidativo, foram procurados nos genomas sequenciados, genes possivelmente envolvidos neste processo. Dentre estes, os genes DIP0906, predito como gene de resistência ao oxidante telurito (TeO32-), e DIP1421, codificador do regulador transcricional OxyR, foram caracterizados funcionalmente e tiveram seus papéis na patogenicidade investigados. Ensaios in vivo utilizando o nematódeo Caenorhabditis elegans demonstraram que ambos são importantes para a virulência de C. diphtheriae. Além da resistência ao TeO32, DIP0906 parece contribuir para a resistência ao peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2) e para a viabilidade no interior de células respiratórias humanas. Já OxyR, além de controlar negativamente a resposta ao H2O2, parece estar envolvido com a ligação de C. diphtheriae a proteínas plasmáticas e de matriz extracelular. Adicionalmente, foi investigada resistência e a capacidade de adaptação de C. diphtheriae frente a agentes oxidantes, através da indução de resposta adaptativa e/ou resistência cruzada e da formação de biofilme. As cepas de C. diphtheriae apresentaram diferentes níveis de resistência e um comportamento heterogêneo na presença dos agentes oxidantes, o que sugere a existência de diferentes estratégias de sobrevivência e adaptação de C. diphtheriae nas condições de estresse oxidativo.

Estudo das características fenotípicas e genotípicas de amostras de Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis

Uma vez que C. pseudotuberculosis é o agente etiológico de processos infecciosos em animais caprinos e ovinos e que também pode ser isolado de processos infecciosos em seres humanos as investigações direcionadas para a espécie em questão são necessárias, visto que a escassez de dados epidemiológicos e de conhecimento relativo ao comportamento do microrganismo em hospedeiros animais e humanos em nosso país dificulta o diagnóstico laboratorial da espécie, à semelhança do observado com outra espécie de transmissão zoonótica, o C. ulcerans. Uma preocupação adicional é o fato da espécie em questão também ser capaz de albergar bacteriófagos codificadores da toxina diftérica, representando uma ameaça à circulação dos bacteriófagos. Assim, o presente estudo tem como objetivo geral analisar as características fenotípicas e genotípicas de amostras de C. pseudotuberculosis. Neste sentido, foram propostos os seguintes objetivos: Avaliar as características bioquímicas das amostras através de testes bioquímicos convencionais; avaliar as características bioquímicas das amostras utilizando o sistema semi-automatizado API Coryne; diferenciar amostras de C. pseudotuberculosis de C. ulcerans utilizando a técnica de PCR multiplex; pesquisar a presença de gene tox. Os resultados demonstraram que amostras de C. diphtheriae, C. ulcerans e C. pseudotuberculosis podem ser caracterizadas por métodos bioquímicos convencionais e por taxonomia numérica (API Coryne System). C. ulcerans e C. pseudotuberculosis, com potencial de circulação zoonótica, da mesma forma que C. diphtheriae são capazes de albergar o gene da toxina diftérica. A reação m-PCR foi capaz de discernir as amostras de C. diphtheriae, C. ulcerans e C. pseudotuberculosis e ainda definir o potencial das amostras em produzir a toxina diftérica. Os dados enfatizam a necessidade da técnica multiplex PCR para o diagnostico e para o controle de espécies associadas a quadros de difteria em populações humana.

白喉毒素-血管内皮生长因子突变体融合毒素的研究

本研究旨在利用突变后的血管内皮生长因子（VEGF）与白喉毒素（DT）构建靶向毒素，使其特异性地杀伤肿瘤血管，达到阻断血管增生，切断肿瘤的血液供应的目的。首先通过基因工程技术从白喉杆菌中提取基因组DNA，扩增出其中的DTC区、T区基因。并运用不同的突变方法，构建了四个VEGF的突变体。即VEGF R82A，K84A，H86A突变，VEGF D63A，E64A，E67A突变，和截去了肝素结合区和NP-l（neuropilin-l）受体结合区的VEGF R82A，K84A，H86A突变和VEGF D63A，E64A，E67A突变。以这些突变体的编码基因与DT的T区、C区基因制成四个融合基因，并在大肠杆菌中表达、纯化、复性。以相似条件下制备的不加VEGF突变体的DTT区、C区蛋白为阴性对照，以VEGFR-l＋和VEGFR-2＋的Lovo细胞和VEGFR-l＋VEGFR-2-的SMMC-7721细胞做细胞实验。制成的四个融合毒素中有三个通过细胞学检验，具有靶向杀伤作用。特异性结合VEGFR-1受体的蛋白PmV8D、PsmVSD既可以抑制VEGFR-1+、VEGFR-2-的肝癌细胞SMMC-7721又可以抑制VEGFR-1+、VEGFR-2＋的结肠癌细胞Lovo。而不带VEGF突变体的DT391无抑制作用。特异性结合VEGFRZ受体的蛋白PmV6D可以抑制VEGFR-1+、VEGFR-2＋结肠癌细胞Lovo的生长，但不可以抑制VEGFR-1＋，VEGFR-2-的肝癌细胞SMMC-7721。受体结合力过弱的PsmV6D不对细胞的生长产生任何影响。

杀伤血管内皮生长因子受体1阳性细胞的靶向毒素

白喉毒素(diphtheria toxin DT) 是棒状白喉杆菌被茁噬菌体感染后分泌的一种外毒素. 它可以阻断真核细胞的蛋白质合成,杀死细胞. 血管内皮生长因子(VEGF) 的R82A,K84A,H86A突变体可以和肿瘤血管上高表达的VEGF受体1 (VEGFR-1) 特异性结合. 首先从白喉杆菌中提取基因组DNA,扩增出白喉毒素C区、T区基因. 并运用点突变技术,制成VEGF的R82A,K84A,H86A突变体. 利用这个可以和肿瘤血管上特异性受体相结合的VEGF的突变体,代替白喉毒素上的受体结合区,制成了针对VEGFR-1的靶向融合毒素——DT391-mVEGF. 以去除了受体结合区的DT391为阴性对照,细胞实验表明,融合毒素对VEGFR-1阳性的肿瘤细胞有特异性杀伤作用.

Discrete retinal input to the parabrachial complex of a new-world primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

Traditional retinal projections target three functionally complementary systems it) the brain of mammals: the primary visual system, the visuomotor integration systems and the circadian timing system. In recent years, studies in several animals have been conducted to investigate the retinal projections to these three systems, despite some evidence of additional targets. The aim of this study was to disclose a previously unknown connection between the retina and the parabrachial complex of the common marmoset, by means of the intraocular injection of cholera toxin Subunit b. A few labeled retinal fibers/terminals that are detected in the medial parabrachial portion of the marmoset brain show clear varicosities, Suggesting terminal fields. Although the possible role of these projections remains unknown, they may provide a modulation of the cholinergic parabrachial neurons which project to the thalamic dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Prefrontal afferents to the dorsal raphe nucleus in the rat

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) receives strong inputs from monoaminergic cell groups in the brainstem and also sends projections to these nuclei. Recent evidence suggests that the PFC exerts a powerful top-down control over the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) and that it may be involved in the actions of pharmaceutical drugs and drugs of abuse. In the light of these findings, the precise origin of prefrontal inputs to DR was presently investigated by using the cholera toxin subunit b (CTb) as retrograde tracer. All the injections placed in DR produced retrograde labeling in the medial, orbital, and lateral divisions of the PFC as well as in the medial part of the frontal polar cortex. The labeling was primarily located in layer V. Remarkably, labeling in the medial PFC was denser in its ventral part (infralimbic and ventral prelimbic cortices) than in its dorsal part (dorsal prelimbic, anterior cingulate and medial precentral cortices). After injections in the rostral or caudal DR, the largest number of labeled neurons was observed in the medial PFC, whereas after injections in the mid-rostrocaudal DR, the labeled neurons were more homogeneously distributed in the three main PFC divisions. A cluster of labeled neurons also was observed around the apex of the rostral pole of the accumbens, especially after rostral and mid-rostrocaudal DR injections. Overall, these results confirm the existence of robust preftontal projections to DR, mainly derived from the ventral part of the medial PFC, and underscore a substantial contribution of the frontal polar cortex. (C) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Foxp3 expression in macrophages associated with RENCA tumors in mice.

The transcription factor Foxp3 represents the most specific functional marker of CD4+ regulatory T cells (TRegs). However, previous reports have described Foxp3 expression in other cell types including some subsets of macrophages, although there are conflicting reports and Foxp3 expression in cells other than Treg is not well characterized. We performed detailed investigations into Foxp3 expression in macrophages in the normal tissue and tumor settings. We detected Foxp3 protein in macrophages infiltrating mouse renal cancer tumors injected subcutaneously or in the kidney. Expression was demonstrated using flow cytometry and Western blot with two individual monoclonal antibodies. Further analyses confirmed Foxp3 expression in macrophages by RT PCR, and studies using ribonucleic acid-sequencing (RNAseq) demonstrated a previously unknown Foxp3 messenger (m)RNA transcript in tumor-associated macrophages. In addition, depletion of Foxp3+ cells using diphtheria toxin in Foxp3DTR mice reduced the frequency of type-2 macrophages (M2) in kidney tumors. Collectively, these results indicate that tumor-associated macrophages could express Foxp3.

Efeitos da eliminação de neurônios infragranulares sobre a especificação de neurônios supragranulares do córtex cerebral

The cerebral cortex of mammals is histologically organized into different layers of excitatory neurons that have distinct patterns of connections with cortical or subcortical targets. During development, these cortical layers are established through an intricate combination of neuronal specification and migration in a radial pattern known as "insideout": deep-layer neurons are generated prior to upper-layer neurons. In the last few decades, several genes encoding transcription factors involved in the sequential specification of neurons destined to different cortical layers have been identified. However, the influence of early-generated neurons in the specification of subsequent neuronal cohorts remains unclear. To investigate this possible influence, we induced the selective death of cortical neurons from layer V and VI before the generation of layer II, III and IV neurons. Thus, we can evaluate the effects of ablation of early born neurons on the phenotype of late born neurons. Our data shows that one-day after ablation, layer VI neurons expressing the transcription factor TBR1 are newly generated while virtually no neuron expressing TBR1 was generated in the same age in control animals. This suggests that progenitors involved in the generation of neurons destined for superficial layers suffer interference from the selective death of neurons in deep layers, changing their specification. We also observed that while TBR1-positive neurons are located exclusively in deep cortical layers of control animals, many TBR1-positive neurons are misplaced in superficial layers of ablated animals, suggesting that the migration of cortical neurons could be controlled independently of neuronal phenotypes. Furthermore, we observed an increase in layer V neurons expressing CTIP2 and neurons expressing SATB2 and that these cells have changed their distributions. As a conclusion, our data indicate the existence of a mechanism of control exercised by the early-generated neurons in the cerebral cortex on the fate of the progenitors involved in the generation of the following cortical neurons. This mechanism could help to control the number of neurons in different layers and contribute to the establishment of different cortical areas

"O núcleo supraquiasmático e o folheto intergeniculado do mocó (Kerodon rupestris): Projeções retinianas e caracterização imuno-histoquímica

In this study, two circadian related centres, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and the intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) were evaluated in respect to their cytoarchitecture, retinal afferents and chemical content of major cells and axon terminals with a tract tracer and immunohistochemical techniques in the rock cavy (Kerodon rupestris), a Brazilian caviidae rodent species. The rock cavy SCN is innervated in its ventral portion by terminals from the predominantly contralateral retina. It also contains neurophisin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide immunoreactive cell bodies and neuropeptide Y and enkephalin immunopositive fibres and terminals and is marked by intense GFAP immunoreactivity. The IGL receives a predominantly contralateral retinal projection, contains neuropeptide Y and nitric oxide synthase producing neurons and enkephalin immunopositive terminals and is characterized by dense GFAP immunoreactivity. This is the first report examining the neural circadian system in a crepuscular rodent species for which circadian properties have been described. The results are discussed comparing with what has been described for other species and in the context of the functional significance of these centres

Centros subcorticais dos sistemas visual primário e óptico acessório no mocó (kerodon rupestris): caracterização pela projeção retiniana e citoarquitetura.

The primary and accessory optic systems comprise two set of retinorecipient neural clusters. In this study, these visual related centers in the rock cavy were evaluated by using the retinal innervations pattern and Nissl staining cytoarchigtecture. After unilateral intraocular injection of cholera toxin B subunit and immunohistochemical reaction of coronal and sagittal sections from the diencephalon and midbrain region of rock cavy. Three subcortical centres of primary visual system were identified, superior colliculus, lateral geniculate complex and pretectal complex. The lateral geniculate complex is formed by a series of nuclei receiving direct visual information from the retina, dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, intergeniculate leaflet and ventral lateral geniculate nucleus. The pretectal complex is formed by series of pretectal nuclei, medial pretectal nucleus, olivary pretectal nucleus, posterior pretectal nucleus, nucleus of the optic tract and anterior pretectal nucleus. In the accessory optic system, retinal terminals were observed in the dorsal terminal, lateral terminal and medial terminal nuclei as well as in the interstitial nucleus of the superior fasciculus, posterior fibres. All retinorecipient nuclei received bilateral input, with a contralateral predominance. This is the first study of this nature in the rock cavy and the results are compared with the data obtained for other species. The investigation represents a contribution to the knowledge regarding the organization of visual optic systems in relation to the biology of species.