Influência da ck2 no processo de interação Leishmania donovani-macrófagos

O gênero Leishmania apresenta espécies capazes de desenvolver doenças de grande importância para a saúde pública, as leishmanioses, que apresentam prevalência mundial de 12 milhões de pessoas. Quando os parasitos entram em contato com o hospedeiro humano passam por um processo de metaciclogênese adquirindo capacidade de interagir com os macrófagos. Inúmeras atividades biológicas são desencadeadas pela ativação de sistemas de transdução de sinais, onde as proteínas cinases e fosfatases desempenham papel fundamental. A proteína cinase CK2 parece estar presente em todas as células eucarióticas (núcleo, citoplasma e superfície). É caracterizada como enzima serina/treonina cinase, embora também seja capaz de fosforilar resíduos de tirosina em suas proteínas-alvo. No presente trabalho, demonstramos que o principal inibidor da CK2, TBB, foi capaz de inibir o crescimento de formas promastigotas de L. donovani e mostrou um mecanismo de ação irreversível, entretanto não foi capaz de induzir apoptose nas formas promastigotas de L. donovani. O pré-tratamento dos parasitos e macrófagos, assim como a adição do TBB durante o processo de infecção induziram uma redução significativa no número de amastigotas por macrófagos possivelmente pelo mecanismo de morte celular programada demosntrada pela técnica do TUNEL. O tratamento de macrófagos com TBB não induziram o aumento de óxido nítrico. Ensaios de imunofluorescência demonstraram a presença de CK2α em promastigotas. Macrófagos não infectados demonstraram pouca marcação para CK2α. Após a interação, a enzima mostrou-se distribuída preferencialmente na periferia dos macrófagos. Os dados do trabalho sugerem que a CK2 é uma importante enzima para a atividade biológica da Leishmania donovani, tendo seu estudo importante relevância para a descoberta de novos alvos terapêuticos.

Influência das proteínas motoras e CK2 no processo de interação Leishmania braziliensis-macrófago.

O gênero Leishmania é responsável por um grupo de parasitoses que podem variar desde lesões auto-limitadas até severa injúria de tecido. Estes protozoários são parasitos obrigatoriamente intracelulares, tendo o macrófago como célula hospedeira. Durante o processo de fagocitose os macrófagos utilizam a maquinaria presente em seu citoesqueleto, a qual compreende a participação de miosinas e actinas, para a formação do fagossoma. Estas proteínas estão envolvidas em processos como citocinese, tráfego intracelular de organelas e vesículas, podendo interferir com a penetração do parasito. Alguns trabalhos vêm sendo realizados visando analisar a expressão, localização e o papel de miosina e de actina em Leishamania. Estudos associados à participação destas proteínas motoras em processo vitais para a biologia do parasito podem auxiliar na compreensão de seu ciclo e permitir a geração de conhecimentos que apontem novos alvos para intervenções terapêuticas. Uma vez que a miosina é necessária no transporte intracelular, alguns estudos tentam analisar a expressão e a localização intracelular de miosinas na Leishmania. Estudos mostram a presença de atividades cinásicas do tipo CK2 em diversos tripanossomatídeos, ligadas ao crescimento celular, morfologia e infectividade de promastigotas para macrófagos. Desta maneira, como objetivo desta tese temos o estudo da participação das miosinas, actina e CK2 na infectividade da Leishmania braziliensis. Além disso, investigamos a influência destas proteínas na produção de citocinas pelos macrófagos e em sua atividade microbicida. Lipoxina, latrunculina, nocodazol e TBB promoveram uma inibição de, pelo menos, 50% no crescimento de L. braziliensis. A CK2 secretada pelo parasito foi purificada de seu sobrenadante através de coluna de HPLC e a fração 44 mostrou ser a fração correspondente a esta enzima. A lipoxina e o TBB promoveram a inibição da atividade desta enzima ao contrário da latrunculina que forneceu aumento dessa atividade. O pré-tratamento dos parasitos ou dos macrófagos com lipoxina, latrunculina, nocodazol e TBB promoveram uma inibição de cerca de 50% no índice de associação entre Leishmania e macrófagos não-ativados ou ativados por LPS e IFN-γ. Latrunculina e TBB aumentaram a produção de NO em macrófagos não ativados e não infectados enquanto que em macrófagos ativados à exceção do TBB, todas as drogas diminuíram a produção de NO. A liberação de IL-10 foi diminuída após tratamento com todas as drogas em macrófagos não ativados em ausência de promastigotas e ativados em presença do parasito. Para a produção de TNF-α há uma redução significativa em macrófagos ativados não infectados tratados com latrunculina, nocodazol e TBB. Quando ativados e infectados, os macrófagos tratados com lipoxina tiveram a produção dessa citocina aumentada, ao contrário do TBB em que houve redução. Quando avaliamos a integridade da actina verificamos que todos os compostos foram capazes de influenciar a distribuição dessa proteína, levando a uma redução no índice de associação. Ao transfectarmos a cauda da miosina Va fusionada a GFP nos macrófagos observamos que houve uma diminuição de 94% no índice de associação. Nossos dados confirmam a importância da CK2, actina e miosina Va no processo de interação parasito- macrófago.

TGA2 dual activity: N-terminus regulation of reversible DNA binding influenced by NPRI and CK2

TGA2 is a dual-function Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR) transcription factor involved in the activation and repression of pathogenesis-related (PR) genes. Recent studies have shown that TGA2 is able to switch from a basal repressor to activator, likely, through regulatory control from its N-terminus. The N-terminus has also been shown to affect DNA binding of the TGA2 bZIP domain when phosphorylated by Casein Kinase II (CK2). The mechanisms involved for directing a switch from basal repressor to activator, and the role of kinase activity, have not previously been looked at in detail. This study provides evidence for the involvement of a CK2-like kinase in the switch of TGA2 activity from repressor to activator, by regulating the DNA-binding activity of TGA2 by phosphorylating residues in the N terminus of the protein.

The Molecular Consequences of CK2-mediated Phosphorylation of the TGA2 Transcription Factor within Systemic Acquired Resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana

During infection, the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana is capable of activating long lasting defence responses both in tissue directly affected by the pathogen and in more distal tissue. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a type of systemic defence response deployed against biotrophic pathogens resulting in altered plant gene expression and production of antimicrobial compounds. One such gene involved in plant defence is called pathogenesis-related 1 (PR1) and is under the control of several protein regulators. TGA II-clade transcription factors (namely TGA2) repress PR1 activity prior to infection by forming large oligomeric complexes effectively blocking gene transcription. After pathogen detection, these complexes are dispersed by a mechanism unknown until now and free TGA molecules interact with the non-expressor of pathogenesis-related gene 1 (NPR1) protein forming an activating complex enabling PR1 transcription. This study elucidates the TGA2 dissociation mechanism by introducing protein kinase CK2 into this process. This enzyme efficiently phosphorylates TGA2 resulting in two crucial events. Firstly, the DNA-binding ability of this transcription factor is completely abolished explaining how the large TGA2 complexes are quickly evicted from the PR1 promoter. Secondly, a portion of TGA2 molecules dissociate from the complexes after phosphorylation which likely makes them available for the formation of the TGA2-NPR1 activating complex. We also show that phosphorylation of a multiserine motif found within TGA2’s N terminus is responsible for the change of affinity to DNA, while modification of a single threonine in the leucine zipper domain seems to be responsible for deoligomerization. Despite the substantial changes caused by phosphorylation, TGA2 is still capable of interacting with NPR1 and these proteins together form a complex on DNA promoting PR1 transcription. Therefore, we propose a change in the current model of how PR1 is regulated by adding CK2 which targets TGA2 displacing it’s complexes from the promoter and providing solitary TGA2 molecules for assembly of the activating complex. Amino acid sequences of regions targeted by CK2 in Arabidopsis TGA2 are similar to those found in TGA2 homologs in rice and tobacco. Therefore, the molecular mechanism that we have identified may be conserved among various plants, including important crop species, adding to the significance of our findings.

Funktionelle Charakterisierung der Protein-Kinase CK2 in der Suppression Th2-vermittelter Immunantworten durch regulatorische T-Zellen

Regulatorische T-Zellen (Tregs) leisten durch ihre suppressiven Eigenschaften einen essenziellen Beitrag zur Aufrechterhaltung der immunologischen Toleranz. Sie verhindern schädliche Immunreaktionen gegen Autoantigene, kommensale Bakterien, sowie harmlose Nahrungsmittel-bestandteile. Gleichzeitig gewährleisten sie die Entwicklung effektiver Immunantworten gegen eindringende Pathogene, wie z.B. Parasiten, Bakterien und Viren. Damit haben Tregs direkten Einfluss auf das Gleichgewicht zwischen Immunität und Toleranz. Fehler in der suppressiven Funktionsweise von Tregs begünstigen daher auf der einen Seite die Entstehung zahlreicher autoimmuner Erkrankungen und Allergien. Auf der anderen Seite können Tregs Immunreaktionen bei chronischen Infektionen reduzieren, sowie die Entstehung effektiver Immunantworten gegen Tumore hemmen. Ihre Beteiligung an der Ätiologie all dieser Krankheiten macht Tregs zu einem bedeutenden potenziellen Zielobjekt, um diese Krankheiten effektiv zu therapieren. Die Erweiterung des Grundwissens um die molekularen Mechanismen der Treg-vermittelten Suppression ist daher ein notwendiger Schritt bei der Entwicklung Treg-basierter Theraphieansätze. 2003 konnte mit Foxp3 ein Transkriptionsfaktor identifiziert werden, der maßgeblich die suppressiven Funktionen von Tregs steuert. Um weiteren Einblick in die der Suppression zugrundeliegenden Signalwege zu erhalten, wurde im Institut für Immunologie ein komparativer Kinomarray durchgeführt, anhand dessen die Casein Kinase 2 (CK2) als eine der aktivsten Kinasen in Tregs identifiziert wurde (Daten freundlicherweise von Prof. Dr. Tobias Bopp bereitgestellt). rnBasierend auf den Ergebnissen des Kinomarrays wurde in dieser Arbeit die Funktion der CK2 in Tregs untersucht. Dabei konnte in in vitro Experimenten die Treg-vermittelte Suppression durch den pharmakologische CK2 Inhibitor DMAT aufgehoben werden. Weil derartige Inhibitoren jedoch nicht absolut spezifisch die Aktivität nur einer Kinase supprimieren, wurden außerdem Mäuse mit konditionalem „knockout“ der CK2β Untereinheit spezifisch in Tregs gekreuzt (CK2βTreg-/- Mäuse). Die Analyse dieser Tiere offenbarte eine essenzielle Beteiligung der CK2 an den suppressiven Funktionen von Tregs. So entwickeln CK2βTreg-/- Mäuse mit zunehmendem Alter Splenomegalien und Lymphadenopathien, von denen in besonderem Maße die Mukosa-assoziierten Lymphknoten betroffen sind. Eine Analyse des Aktivierungsstatus der T-Zellen in den Tieren konnte zudem einen erhöhten Anteil sogenannter Effektor-Gedächtnis T-Zellen aufdecken, die charakteristische Merkmale eines Th2 Phänotyps zeigten. Erhöhte Titer des Antikörperisotyps IgE in den Seren von CK2βTreg-/- Mäusen suggerieren zusätzlich eine fehlerhafte Suppression speziell Th2-vermittelter Immunantworten durch CK2β-defiziente Tregs. In Th2-vermittelten Asthma Experimenten in vivo konnte der Verdacht der fehlerhaften Kontrolle von Th2-Antwort bestätigt werden, wobei zusätzlich aufgedeckt wurde, dass bereits unbehandelte CK2βTreg-/- Mäuse Zeichen einer Entzündungsreaktion in der Lunge aufweisen. Bei der Suche nach den molekularen Ursachen der fehlerhaften Suppression Th2-vermittelter Immunantworten durch CK2β-defiziente Tregs konnten zwei mögliche Erklärungsansätze gefunden werden. Zum einen zeigen CK2β-defiziente Tregs eine verringerte Expression von Foxp3, was, in Analogie zu Ergebnissen der Gruppe von R. Flavell (Wang Y.Y. Nature. 445, 766-770 (2007)), zu einer Konversion von Tregs zu Th2 Zellen und damit zur Entstehung eines Th2-basierten, autoimmunen Phänotyps führt. Des Weiteren weisen CK2β-defiziente Tregs eine reduzierte Expression des Transkriptionsfaktors IRF4 auf, der in Tregs entscheidend für die Kontrolle Th2-basierter Immunreaktionen ist (Zheng Y. Nature. 19; 351-356 (2009)). Die dargelegten Ergebnisse identifizieren die CK2 damit als Kinase, die entscheidend an der Treg-vermittelten Suppression speziell Th2-basierter Immunantworten beteiligt ist. Demnach könnten pharmakologische CK2 Inhibitoren beispielsweise dazu eingesetzt werden, um die Treg-vermittelte Suppression im Rahmen chronischer Parasiten-Infektionen aufzuheben. Die in CK2βTreg-/- Mäusen beobachtete Prävalenz der Funktion der CK2 für Mukosa-assoziierte Organe stellt dabei einen zusätzlichen Vorteil dar, weil systemische Nebenwirkungen, die durch die Blockade der Treg-vermittelte Suppression entstehen, zumindest in nicht-Mukosa-assoziierten Geweben nicht zu erwarten sind.rn

RP1 is a phosphorylation target of CK2 and is involved in cell adhesion

RP1 (synonym: MAPRE2, EB2) is a member of the microtubule binding EB1 protein family, which interacts with APC, a key regulatory molecule in the Wnt signalling pathway. While the other EB1 proteins are well characterized the cellular function and regulation of RP1 remain speculative to date. However, recently RP1 has been implicated in pancreatic cancerogenesis. CK2 is a pleiotropic kinase involved in adhesion, proliferation and anti-apoptosis. Overexpression of protein kinase CK2 is a hallmark of many cancers and supports the malignant phenotype of tumor cells. In this study we investigate the interaction of protein kinase CK2 with RP1 and demonstrate that CK2 phosphorylates RP1 at Ser(236) in vitro. Stable RP1 expression in cell lines leads to a significant cleavage and down-regulation of N-cadherin and impaired adhesion. Cells expressing a Phospho-mimicking point mutant RP1-ASP(236) show a marked decrease of adhesion to endothelial cells under shear stress. Inversely, we found that the cells under shear stress downregulate endogenous RP1, most likely to improve cellular adhesion. Accordingly, when RP1 expression is suppressed by shRNA, cells lacking RP1 display significantly increased cell adherence to surfaces. In summary, RP1 phosphorylation at Ser(236) by CK2 seems to play a significant role in cell adhesion and might initiate new insights in the CK2 and EB1 family protein association.

The protein kinase CK2 is involved in regulation of circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis

A wide range of processes in plants, including expression of certain genes, is regulated by endogenous circadian rhythms. The circadian clock-associated 1 (CCA1) and the late elongated hypocotyl (LHY) proteins have been shown to be closely associated with clock function in Arabidopsis thaliana. The protein kinase CK2 can interact with and phosphorylate CCA1, but its role in the regulation of the circadian clock remains unknown. Here we show that plants overexpressing CKB3, a regulatory subunit of CK2, display increased CK2 activity and shorter periods of rhythmic expression of CCA1 and LHY. CK2 is also able to interact with and phosphorylate LHY in vitro. Additionally, overexpression of CKB3 shortened the periods of four known circadian clock-controlled genes with different phase angles, demonstrating that many clock outputs are affected. This overexpression also reduced phytochrome induction of an Lhcb gene. Finally, we found that the photoperiodic flowering response, which is influenced by circadian rhythms, was diminished in the transgenic lines, and that the plants flowered earlier on both long-day and short-day photoperiods. These data demonstrate that CK2 is involved in regulation of the circadian clock in Arabidopsis.

Protein kinase CK2 interacts with and phosphorylates the Arabidopsis circadian clock-associated 1 protein

The circadian clock-associated 1 (CCA1) gene encodes a Myb-related transcription factor that has been shown to be involved in the phytochrome regulation of Lhcb1*3 gene expression and in the function of the circadian oscillator in Arabidopsis thaliana. By using a yeast interaction screen to identify proteins that interact with CCA1, we have isolated a cDNA clone encoding a regulatory (β) subunit of the protein kinase CK2 and have designated it as CKB3. CKB3 is the only reported example of a third β-subunit of CK2 found in any organism. CKB3 interacts specifically with CCA1 both in a yeast two-hybrid system and in an in vitro interaction assay. Other subunits of CK2 also show an interaction with CCA1 in vitro. CK2 β-subunits stimulate binding of CCA1 to the CCA1 binding site on the Lhcb1*3 gene promoter, and recombinant CK2 is able to phosphorylate CCA1 in vitro. Furthermore, Arabidopsis plant extracts contain a CK2-like activity that affects the formation of a DNA–protein complex containing CCA1. These results suggest that CK2 can modulate CCA1 activity both by direct interaction and by phosphorylation of the CCA1 protein and that CK2 may play a role in the function of CCA1 in vivo.

Antisense Expression of the CK2 α-Subunit Gene in Arabidopsis. Effects on Light-Regulated Gene Expression and Plant Growth1

The protein kinase CK2 (formerly casein kinase II) is thought to be involved in light-regulated gene expression in plants because of its ability to phosphorylate transcription factors that bind to the promoter regions of light-regulated genes in vitro. To address this possibility in vivo and to learn more about the potential physiological roles of CK2 in plants, we transformed Arabidopsis with an antisense construct of the CK2 α-subunit gene and investigated both morphological and molecular phenotypes. Antisense transformants had a smaller adult leaf size and showed increased expression of chs in darkness and of cab and rbcS after red-light treatment. The latter molecular phenotype implied that CK2 might serve as one of several negative and quantitative effectors in light-regulated gene expression. The possible mechanism of CK2 action and its involvement in the phytochrome signal transduction pathway are discussed.

Hd6, a rice quantitative trait locus involved in photoperiod sensitivity, encodes the α subunit of protein kinase CK2

Hd6 is a quantitative trait locus involved in rice photoperiod sensitivity. It was detected in backcross progeny derived from a cross between the japonica variety Nipponbare and the indica variety Kasalath. To isolate a gene at Hd6, we used a large segregating population for the high-resolution and fine-scale mapping of Hd6 and constructed genomic clone contigs around the Hd6 region. Linkage analysis with P1-derived artificial chromosome clone-derived DNA markers delimited Hd6 to a 26.4-kb genomic region. We identified a gene encoding the α subunit of protein kinase CK2 (CK2α) in this region. The Nipponbare allele of CK2α contains a premature stop codon, and the resulting truncated product is undoubtedly nonfunctional. Genetic complementation analysis revealed that the Kasalath allele of CK2α increases days-to-heading. Map-based cloning with advanced backcross progeny enabled us to identify a gene underlying a quantitative trait locus even though it exhibited a relatively small effect on the phenotype.

Movement-associated proteins of Potato virus A: attachment to virus particles and phosphorylation

The particles of Potato virus A (PVA; genus Potyvirus) are helically constructed filaments that contain multiple copies of a single type of coat-protein (CP) subunit and a single copy of genome-linked protein (VPg), attached to one end of the virion. Examination of negatively-stained virions by electron microscopy revealed flexuous, rod-shaped particles with no obvious terminal structures. It is known that particles of several filamentous plant viruses incorporate additional minor protein components, forming stable complexes that mediate particle disassembly, movement or transmission by insect vectors. The first objective of this work was to study the interaction of PVA movement-associated proteins with virus particles and how these interactions contribute to the morphology and function of the virus particles. Purified particles of PVA were examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and immuno-gold electron microscopy. A protrusion was found at one end of some of the potyvirus particles, associated with the 5' end of the viral RNA. The tip contained two virus-encoded proteins, the genome-linked protein (VPg) and the helper-component proteinase (HC-Pro). Both are required for cell-to-cell movement of the virus. Biochemical and electron microscopy studies of purified PVA samples also revealed the presence of another protein required for cell-to-cell movement the cylindrical inclusion protein (CI), which is also an RNA helicase/ATPase. Centrifugation through a 5-40% sucrose gradient separated virus particles with no detectable CI to a fraction that remained in the gradient, from the CI-associated particles that went to the pellet. Both types of particles were infectious. AFM and translation experiments demonstrated that when the viral CI was not present in the sample, PVA virions had a beads-on-a-string phenotype, and RNA within the virus particles was more accessible to translation. The second objective of this work was to study phosphorylation of PVA movement-associated and structural proteins (CP and VPg) in vitro and, if possible, in vivo. PVA virion structural protein CP is necessary for virus cell-to-cell movement. The tobacco protein kinase CK2 was identified as a kinase phosphorylating PVA CP. A major site of CK2 phosphorylation in PVA CP was identified as a single threonine within a CK2 consensus sequence. Amino acid substitutions affecting the CK2 consensus sequence in CP resulted in viruses that were defective in cell-to-cell and long-distance movement. The CK2 regulation of virion assembly and cell-to-cell movement by phosphorylation of CP was possibly due to the inhibition of CP binding to viral RNA. Four putative phosphorylation sites were identified from an in vitro phosphorylated recombinant VPg. All four were mutated and the spread of mutant viruses in two different host plants was studied. Two putative phosphorylation site mutants (Thr45 and Thr49) had phenotypes identical to that of a wild type (WT) virus infection in both Nicotiana benthamiana and N. tabacum plants. The other two mutant viruses (Thr132/Ser133 and Thr168) showed different phenotypes with increased or decreased accumulation rates, respectively, in inoculated and the first two systemically infected leaves of N. benthamiana. The same mutants were occasionally restricted to single cells in N. tabacum plants, suggesting the importance of these amino acids in the PVA infection cycle in N. tabacum.

Investigations on the RNA binding and phosphorylation of groundnut bud necrosis virus nucleocapsid protein

Groundnut bud necrosis virus belongs to the genus Tospovirus, infects a wide range of crop plants and causes severe losses. To understand the role of the nucleocapsid protein in the viral life cycle, the protein was overexpressed in E. coli and purified by Ni-NTA chromatography. The purified N protein was well folded and was predominantly alpha-helical. Deletion analysis revealed that the C-terminal unfolded region of the N protein was involved in RNA binding. Furthermore, the N protein could be phosphorylated in vitro by Nicotiana benthamiana plant sap and by purified recombinant kinases such as protein kinase CK2 and calcium-dependent protein kinase. This is the first report of phoshphorylation of a nucleocapsid protein in the family Bunyaviridae. The possible implications of the present findings for the viral life cycle are discussed.

Identification of miRNAs from French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) under low nitrate stress

Objective: In this study, we report the role of miRNAs involved under nitrogen starvation from widely grown vegetable crop, French bean. In recent years, a great deal of attention has been paid to the elucidation of miRNAs involved in low nitrate stress. Methods: To identify miRNAs expressed under stress, cDNA libraries were analyzed. Results: We reported the nine potential miRNAs with 67 targets involved in nutrient transporters and other stress specific genes. Among the miRNA sequences obtained 6 sequences belong to miR172 family, one with miR169. RT-PCR analysis of expression of miR172 family was induced upon low nitrate stress while miR169 family was repressed. In addition, Pvu-SN7b and Pvu-miR16 may be new members of miRNA172 and miR169 families, respectively. Conclusion: The targets of Pvu-SN7b were major protein kinases, one among which is the Protein Kinase CK2. CK2 Kinase is found to involve in transcription-directed signaling, gene control and cell-cycle regulation. Other targets of Pvu-SN7b were involved in DNA-dependent transcription regulation, photo-periodism, calcium-mediated signaling. Pvu-miR16 targets Thymidine kinase, the key enzyme of deoxy-nucleotide synthesis. The cleavage of these targets affects cell proliferation there by affecting nodule formation. Pvu-miR8 inhibits translation of its target protein Pre-protein translocase, a membrane-bound protein transporter involved in trans-membrane protein transportation. Together these results denote the response and role of miRNAs to nitrate-limiting conditions in French bean.