La phylogénie moléculaire du genre nord-américain Eurybia (Asteraceae : Astereae) et ses proches parents (Oreostemma, Herrickia, Triniteurybia)

Eurybia et ses proches parents Oreostemma, Herrickia et Triniteurybia sont appelés le grade des eurybioïdes. Comprenant 31 espèces vivaces, ce grade appartient au clade Nord-américain de la tribu des Astereae. Les analyses moléculaires antérieures ont montré que ce groupe est à la fois paraphylétique aux Machaerantherinae et un groupe frère aux Symphyotrichinae. Les relations infragénériques partiellement résolues et faiblement supportées empêchent d’approfondir l'histoire évolutive des groupes et ce, particulièrement dans le genre principal Eurybia. Le but de cette étude est de reconstruire les relations phylogénétiques au sein des eurybioïdes autant par l'inclusion de toutes les espèces du grade que par l’utilisation de différents types de régions et de méthodes d'inférence phylogénétique. Cette étude présente des phylogénies basées sur l'ADN ribosomal nucléaire (ITS, ETS), de l'ADN chloroplastique (trnL-F, trnS-G, trnC-ycf6) et d’un locus du génome nucléaire à faible nombre de copie (CNGC4). Les données sont analysées séparément et combinées à l’aide des approches de parcimonie, bayesienne et de maximum de vraisemblance. Les données ADNnr n’ont pas permis de résoudre les relations entre les espèces polyploïdes des Eurybia. Les analyses combinées avec des loci d’ADNnr et d’ADNnr+cp ont donc été limitées à des diploïdes. Les analyses combinées ont montré une meilleure résolution et un meilleur support que les analyses séparées. La topologie de l’ADNnr+cp était la mieux résolue et supportée. La relation phylogénétique de genres appartenant au grade des eurybioïdes est comme suit : Oreostemma (Herrickia s.str. (Herrickia kingii (Eurybia (Triniteurybia - Machaerantherinae)))). Basé sur la topologie combinée de l’ADNnr+cp, nous avons effectué des analyses de biogéographie à l’aide des logiciels DIVA et LaGrange. Ces analyses ont révélé une première radiation des eurybioïdes dans l’Ouest de l’Amérique du Nord, suivi de deux migrations indépendantes dans l’Est de l’Amérique du Nord chez les Eurybia. Due au relatif manque de variabilité de l’ADNnr, l’ADNcp et CNGC4, où le triage de lignés incomplet était dominant, l'origine du grade est interprétée comme récente, possiblement du Pliocène. La diversification du groupe a été probablement favorisée par les glaciations Pléistocènes.

Phylogenetic Relationships in Eleocharis (Cyperaceae): C-4 Photosynthesis Origins and Patterns of Diversification in the Spikerushes

Eleocharis (Cyperaceae) is a morphologically and physiologically diverse lineage of 250 + species with a cosmopolitan distribution. We here explore phylogenetic relationships in this lineage using maximum parsimony and Bayesian inference analyses of nrDNA ITS and cpDNA trnC-ycf6 and ycf6-psbM sequence data with the goals of comparing our phylogenetic hypotheses to previous classifications, morphological variation, and photosynthetic pathway variation. Our results suggest that in Eleocharis C, photosynthesis has been derived at least three times, with several cases of possible reversion to C-3-like or intermediate pathways and several additional origins of C-3-C-4 intermediate photosynthetic pathways, as inferred by carbon isotope ratio measurements. Many classification units currently recognized in Eleocharis are not monophyletic, however, E. subgenus Limnochloa and E. subgenus Scirpidium are monophyletic. Other classification units largely corresponding to clades include E. subgenus Zinserlingia, E. subseries Chaetariae, and E. series Maculosae. Problems with species circumscription and morphological variation in several groups are discussed in light of the phylogeny, particularly in the context of species membership of seven focal clades found in the analyses.

云杉属的分子系统学与生物地理学研究

云杉属植物是非常重要的森林树种，广泛分布于北半球的寒温带、温带高山和亚高山地带。该属为松科中仅次于松属和冷杉属的第三大属，约有 28-56 种。自云杉属建立以来，其属于松科没有任何疑议。然而，由于云杉属物种间频繁杂交、形态趋同和取样困难，尽管已经有基于形态学、细胞学、化学成份、叶绿体 DNA RFLP 等方面的研究，该属的属下分类仍然存在诸多争议。本文利用父系遗传的叶绿体基因和母系遗传的线粒体基因序列重建了云杉属的系统发育关系，探讨了云杉属生物地理格局的形成过程。在此基础上，我们研究了低拷贝核 CAD 基因在云杉属的进化式样。另外，我们还对裸子植物线粒体基因 rps3 的内含子分布和进化进行了初步研究。 1． 云杉属的系统发育和生物地理学研究 我们选择了 Farjon (1990) 确定的 34 个种中的 33 种 (另一个种在 Flora of China 未得到承认)，共 103 个个体，对这些个体的叶绿体 DNA 片段 trnC-trnD 和 trnT-trnF 以及线粒体基因 nad5 的第一个内含子进行了序列测定。在两个叶绿体基因片段联合分析构建的系统发育树上，北美西部的 P. breweriana 和 P. sitchensis 位于最基部。其余的物种分为三支：第一支由北美的两个物种组成;第二支包括分布于喜马拉雅-横断山区及其周围地区的八个种、台湾的 P. morrisonicola、西亚的 P. orientalis、日本的两个种及北美的 P. chihuahuana;第三支中，北美的 P. pungens 位于基部，亚洲东北部的种 (除 P. maximowiczii 和 P. torano 外)、P. retroflexa 和欧洲的 P. abies 构成一个单系群，并与北美的 P. mariana 和 P. rubens 及来自巴尔干半岛的 P. omorika 形成姐妹支。所有样品的 nad5 第一个内含子序列可分为 A、B、C、D 和 E 5 种单倍型，北美的物种拥有前 4 种，而且 A、B 和 C 单倍型为北美所特有;欧亚的物种仅含 D 和 E 两种单倍型。 上述结果结合 MacClade 和 DIVA 分析及化石证据，我们推断云杉属起源于北美，至少两次经白令陆桥扩散至亚洲，然后从亚洲扩散至欧洲。亚洲东北部的绝大多数物种和欧洲云杉 P. abies 的种间遗传变异非常低，而且线粒体单倍型均为 D，可能来源于一次近期的辐射分化。云杉属的现代分布中心之一喜马拉雅-横断山区的物种可能不是一次起源，日本的物种同样如此，这可能与第三纪气候变冷和第四纪冰川导致的物种迁移有关。此外，我们发现目前用于云杉属分类的一些形态性状（如叶扁平、菱形等）在系统发育树上位于不同的位置，说明这些性状可能不是一次起源或是祖征在不同支系中的保留，用于云杉属的系统划分须慎重。 2． 云杉属 CAD 基因的进化研究 裸子植物的多倍体特别少，且以基因组庞大而著称。被子植物中的很多单拷贝基因在裸子植物中以低拷贝或多拷贝基因家族的方式存在。CAD 基因在木质素单体合成的最后一步起作用，在松属中只发现了一种 CAD 基因拷贝，在欧洲云杉中却发现了三种拷贝，而且 Southern 杂交和子代分离鉴定结果表明这三种拷贝至少位于两个位点上。然而，对云杉属三个物种 (包括欧洲云杉) 构建的遗传图谱却都只发现了一个 CAD 基因位点。由于云杉属 CAD 基因的数目和分布存在很大争议，我们根据构建的叶绿体基因树，选择了不同支上的 20 个物种、29 个样品研究该基因的进化式样。结果表明：云杉属不同物种中 CAD 基因的拷贝数为 1-4 种，多数为 2-3 种。系统发育分析发现有些物种的所有 CAD 基因拷贝聚成一支，另有一些物种的 CAD 基因拷贝位于不同位置。此外，我们对 GenBank 中云杉属三个物种 CAD 基因的 EST 序列分析后发现：EST 序列的差异主要发生在 3’-UTR 区，表现为序列长短的不同，这有可能是进行体外反转录时引物结合于不同的位置所致。因此，结合前人研究（包括遗传图谱分析），我们推测 CAD 基因在云杉属内发生了多次重复，重复拷贝很可能呈串联排列。 3. 裸子植物线粒体基因 rps3 的进化研究 线粒体基因内含子的获得/丢失已经被广泛应用于系统发育研究。rps3 为分布最广的线粒体核糖体蛋白基因，一般含一个内含子，前人研究显示其在裸子植物中多了一个第二类内含子 rps3i2，并将这个内含子作为区分裸子植物和其它植物类群的标志之一。然而，该研究只选择了苏铁和银杏作为裸子植物的代表，取样代表性不足。在本研究中，我们对裸子植物每个科至少选择一个物种作为代表，通过 DNA 序列和部分物种的 RT-PCR 分析，探讨 rps3 基因在裸子植物中的进化。结果表明 rps3 基因内含子的分布与裸子植物系统发育关系相吻合：Conifer II、松科的落叶松属和黄杉属及百岁兰科不仅不含 rps3i2，而且丢失了第一个内含子;金钱松属缺失第二个内含子。我们推断在 Conifer II 的祖先和百岁兰科中分别一次性丢失了两个内含子;在松科中则发生了两次单独的丢失事件，一次是在落叶松属和黄杉属的祖先中丢失了两个内含子，一次是在金钱松属中丢失了第二个内含子。另外，在 Ephedra 中没有扩增出 rps3 基因，Gnetum 中具有第二个内含子，倪藤科的 rps3i2 似乎支持松科与倪藤纲的关系更近。对 rps3i2 的进一步分析发现，其序列结构与松科的系统发育关系非常吻合。根据上述结果和 mRNA 编辑位点分析，我们认为 Conifer II等类群中的两个rps3内含子丢失可能是反转录酶介导的 cDNA 反转录造成的。Psuedolarix 的内含子丢失也可能为相同机制，但因缺乏材料而未能进一步研究。

Tandem duplication-random loss is not a real feature of oyster mitochondrial genomes

Duplications and rearrangements of coding genes are major themes in the evolution of mitochondrial genomes, bearing important consequences in the function of mitochondria and the fitness of organisms. Yu et al. (BMC Genomics 2008, 9: 477) reported the complete mt genome sequence of the oyster Crassostrea hongkongensis (16,475 bp) and found that a DNA segment containing four tRNA genes (trnK(1), trnC, trnQ(1) and trnN), a duplicated (rrnS) and a split rRNA gene (rrnL5') was absent compared with that of two other Crassostrea species. It was suggested that the absence was a novel case of "tandem duplication-random loss" with evolutionary significance. We independently sequenced the complete mt genome of three C. hongkongensis individuals, all of which were 18,622 bp and contained the segment that was missing in Yu et al.'s sequence. Further, we designed primers, verified sequences and demonstrated that the sequence loss in Yu et al.'s study was an artifact caused by placing primers in a duplicated region. The duplication and split of ribosomal RNA genes are unique for Crassostrea oysters and not lost in C. hongkongensis. Our study highlights the need for caution when amplifying and sequencing through duplicated regions of the genome.

Mitochondrial and chloroplast phylogeography of Picea crassifolia Kom. (Pinaceae) in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and adjacent highlands

The disjunct distribution of forests in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) and adjacent Helan Shan and Daqing Shan highlands provides an excellent model to examine vegetation shifts, glacial refugia and gene flow of key species in this complex landscape region in response to past climatic oscillations and human disturbance. In this study, we examined maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (nad1 intron b/c and nad5 intron 1) and paternally inherited chloroplast DNA (trnC-trnD) sequence variation within a dominant forest species, Picea crassifolia Kom. We recovered nine mitotypes and two chlorotypes in a survey of 442 individuals from 32 populations sampled throughout the species' range. Significant mitochondrial DNA population subdivision was detected (G(ST) = 0.512; N-ST = 0.679), suggesting low levels of recurrent gene flow through seeds among populations and significant phylogeographical structure (N-ST > GST, P < 0.05). Plateau haplotypes differed in sequence from those in the adjacent highlands, suggesting a long period of allopatric fragmentation between the species in the two regions and the presence of independent refugia in each region during Quaternary glaciations. On the QTP platform, all but one of the disjunct populations surveyed were fixed for the same mitotype, while most populations at the plateau edge contained more than one haplotype with the mitotype that was fixed in plateau platform populations always present at high frequency. This distribution pattern suggests that present-day disjunct populations on the QTP platform experienced a common recolonization history. The same phylogeographical pattern, however, was not detected for paternally inherited chloroplast DNA haplotypes. Two chlorotypes were distributed throughout the range of the species with little geographical population differentiation (G(ST) = N-ST = 0.093). This provides evidence for highly efficient pollen-mediated gene flow among isolated forest patches, both within and between the QTP and adjacent highland populations. A lack of isolation to pollen-mediated gene flow between forests on the QTP and adjacent highlands is surprising given that the Tengger Desert has been a geographical barrier between these two regions for approximately the last 1.8 million years.

Phylogenetics, conservation, and historical biogeography of the West Indian members of the Adelieae (Euphorbiaceae)

The Caribbean Island Biodiversity Hotspot is the largest insular system of the New World and a priority for biodiversity conservation worldwide. The tribe Adeliae (Euphorbiaceae) has over 35 species endemic to this hotspot, representing one of the most extraordinary cases of speciation in the West Indies, involving taxa from Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. These species form a monophyletic group and traditionally have been accommodated in two endemic genera: Lasiocroton and Leucocroton. A study based on: (1) scanning electron microscopy of pollen and trichomes, (2) macromorphology, and (3) molecular data, was conducted to reveal generic relationships within this group. Phylogenies were based on parsimony and Bayesian analyses of nucleotide sequences of the ITS regions of the nuclear ribosomal DNA and the non-coding chloroplast DNA spacers psbM-trnD and ycf6-pcbM. One species, Lasiocroton trelawniensis, was transferred from the tribe into the genus Bernardia. Of the remaining species, three major monophyletic assemblages were revealed, one was restricted to limestone ares of Hispaniola and was sister to a clade with two monophyletic genera, Lasiocroton and Leucocroton. Morphological, biogeographical, and ecological data provided additional support for each of these three monophyletic assemblages. The Hispaniolan taxa were accommodated in a new genus with four species: Garciadelia. Leucocroton includes the nickel hyperaccumulating species from serpentine soils of Cuba, while the rest of the species were placed in Lasiocroton, a genus restricted to limestone areas. The geographic history of the islands as well as the phylogenetic placement of the Leucocroton-alliance, allows the research to include the historical biogeography of the alliance across the islands of the Caribbean based on a dispersal-vicariance analysis. The alliance arose on Eastern Cuba and Hispaniola, with Lasiocroton and Leucocroton diverging on Eastern Cuba according to soil type. Within Leucocroton, the analysis shows two migrations across the serpentine soils of Cuba. Additional morphological, ecological, and phylogenetic analyses support four new species in Cuba (Lasiocroton gutierrezii) and Hispaniola ( Garciadelia abbottii, G. castilloae, and G. mejiae). ^

Can the European Union build a bridge over troubled waters? An analysis of the politicised and depoliticised legal approach between the European Union and Cyprus

The Cyprus dispute accurately portrays the evolution of the conflict from ‘warfare to lawfare’ enriched in politics; this research has proven that the Cyprus problem has been and will continue to be one of the most judicialised disputes across the globe. Notwithstanding the ‘normalisation’ of affairs between the two ethno-religious groups on the island since the division in 1974, the Republic of Cyprus’ (RoC) European Union (EU) membership in 2004 failed to catalyse reunification and terminate the legal, political and economic isolation of the Turkish Cypriot community. So the question is; why is it that the powerful legal order of the EU continuously fails to tame the tiny troublesome island of Cyprus? This is a thesis on the interrelationship of the EU legal order and the Cyprus problem. A literal and depoliticised interpretation of EU law has been maintained throughout the EU’s dealings with Cyprus, hence, pre-accession and post-accession. The research has brought to light that this literal interpretation of EU law vis-à-vis Cyprus has in actual fact deepened the division on the island. Pessimists outnumber optimists so far as resolving this problem is concerned, and rightly so if you look back over the last forty years of failed attempts to do just that, a diplomatic combat zone scattered with the bones of numerous mediators. This thesis will discuss how the decisions of the EU institutions, its Member States and specifically of the European Court of Justice, despite conforming to the EU legal order, have managed to disregard the principle of equality on the divided island and thus prevent the promised upgrade of the status of the Turkish Cypriot community since 2004. Indeed, whether a positive or negative reading of the Union’s position towards the Cyprus problem is adopted, the case remains valid for an organisation based on the rule of law to maintain legitimacy, democracy, clarity and equality to the decisions of its institutions. Overall, the aim of this research is to establish a link between the lack of success of the Union to build a bridge over troubled waters and the right of self-determination of the Turkish Cypriot community. The only way left for the EU to help resolve the Cyprus problem is to aim to broker a deal between the two Cypriot communities which will permit the recognition of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) or at least the ‘Taiwanisation’ of Northern Cyprus. Albeit, there are many studies that address the impact of the EU on the conflict or the RoC, which represents the government that has monopolised EU accession, the argument advanced in this thesis is that despite the alleged Europeanisation of the Turkish Cypriot community, they are habitually disregarded because of the EU’s current legal framework and the Union’s lack of conflict transformation strategy vis-à-vis the island. Since the self-declared TRNC is not recognised and EU law is suspended in northern Cyprus in accordance with Protocol No 10 on Cyprus of the Act of Accession 2003, the Turkish-Cypriots represent an idiomatic partner of Brussels but the relations between the two resemble the experience of EU enlargement: the EU’s relevance to the community has been based on the prospects for EU accession (via reunification) and assistance towards preparation for potential EU integration through financial and technical aid. Undeniably, the pre-accession and postaccession strategy of Brussels in Cyprus has worsened the Cyprus problem and hindered the peace process. The time has come for the international community to formally acknowledge the existence of the TRNC.