A mitochondrial genome phylogeny of termites (Blattodea: Termitoidae) : robust support for interfamilial relationships and molecular synapomorphies define major clades

Despite their ecological significance as decomposers and their evolutionary significance as the most speciose eusocial insect group outside the Hymenoptera, termite (Blattodea: Termitoidae or Isoptera) evolutionary relationships have yet to be well resolved. Previous morphological and molecular analyses strongly conflict at the family level and are marked by poor support for backbone nodes. A mitochondrial (mt) genome phylogeny of termites was produced to test relationships between the recognised termite families, improve nodal support and test the phylogenetic utility of rare genomic changes found in the termite mt genome. Complete mt genomes were sequenced for 7 of the 9 extant termite families with additional representatives of each of the two most speciose families Rhinotermitidae (3 of 7 subfamilies) and Termitidae (3 of 8 subfamilies). The mt genome of the well supported sister group of termites, the subsocial cockroach Cryptocercus, was also sequenced. A highly supported tree of termite relationships was produced by all analytical methods and data treatment approaches, however the relationship of the termites + Cryptocercus clade to other cockroach lineages was highly affected by the strong nucleotide compositional bias found in termites relative to other dictyopterans. The phylogeny supports previously proposed suprafamilial termite lineages, the Euisoptera and Neoisoptera, a later derived Kalotermitidae as sister group of the Neoisoptera and a monophyletic clade of dampwood (Stolotermitidae, Archotermopsidae) and harvester termites (Hodotermitidae). In contrast to previous termite phylogenetic studies, nodal supports were very high for family-level relationships within termites. Two rare genomic changes in the mt genome control region were found to be molecular synapomorphies for major clades. An elongated stem-loop structure defined the clade Polyphagidae + (Cryptocercus + termites), and a further series of compensatory base changes in this stem loop is synapomorphic for the Neoisoptera. The complicated repeat structures first identified in Reticulitermes, composed of short (A-type) and long (B-type repeats) defines the clade Heterotermitinae + Termitidae, while the secondary loss of A-type repeats is synapomorphic for the non-macrotermitine Termitidae.

Termites did not undermine sale

The New South Wales Court of Appeal decision of Wood v Balfour [2011] NSWCA 382 presents an interesting factual matrix relating to the obligation of a seller to disclose significant latent defects in quality of title to a buyer, in this instance, severe termite damage. It offers insights into the difficulty of a buyer proving the existence of the element of deceit in the making of a representation with respect to quality and reinforces the importance of the rule caveat emptor as being an article of faith for every buyer of real estate.

The evolutionary history of termites as inferred from 66 mitochondrial genomes

Termites have colonized many habitats and are among the most abundant animals in tropical ecosystems, which they modify considerably through their actions. The timing of their rise in abundance and of the dispersal events that gave rise to modern termite lineages is not well understood. To shed light on termite origins and diversification, we sequenced the mitochondrial genome of 48 termite species and combined them with 18 previously sequenced termite mitochondrial genomes for phylogenetic and molecular clock analyses using multiple fossil calibrations. The 66 genomes represent most major clades of termites. Unlike previous phylogenetic studies based on fewer molecular data, our phylogenetic tree is fully resolved for the lower termites. The phylogenetic positions of Macrotermitinae and Apicotermitinae are also resolved as the basal groups in the higher termites, but in the crown termitid groups, including Termitinae + Syntermitinae + Nasutitermitinae + Cubitermitinae, the position of some nodes remains uncertain. Our molecular clock tree indicates that the lineages leading to termites and Cryptocercus roaches diverged 170 Ma (153-196 Ma 95% confidence interval [CI]), that modern Termitidae arose 54 Ma (46-66 Ma 95% CI), and that the crown termitid group arose 40 Ma (35-49 Ma 95% CI). This indicates that the distribution of basal termite clades was influenced by the final stages of the breakup of Pangaea. Our inference of ancestral geographic ranges shows that the Termitidae, which includes more than 75% of extant termite species, most likely originated in Africa or Asia, and acquired their pantropical distribution after a series of dispersal and subsequent diversification events.

The origins and radiation of Australian Coptotermes termites: From rainforest to desert dwellers

The termite genus Coptotermes (Rhinotermitidae) is found in Asia, Africa, Central/South America and Australia, with greatest diversity in Asia. Some Coptotermes species are amongst the world’s most damaging invasive termites, but the genus is also significant for containing the most sophisticated mound-building termites outside the family Termitidae. These mound-building Coptotermes occur only in Australia. Despite its economic and evolutionary significance, the biogeographic history of the genus has not been well investigated, nor has the evolution of the Australian mound-building species. We present here the first phylogeny of the Australian Coptotermes to include representatives from all described species. We combined our new data with previously generated data to estimate the first phylogeny to include representatives from all continents where the genus is found. We also present the first estimation of divergence dates during the evolution of the genus. We found the Australian Coptotermes to be monophyletic and most closely related to the Asian Coptotermes, with considerable genetic diversity in some Australian taxa possibly representing undescribed species. The Australian mound-building species did not form a monophyletic clade. Our ancestral state reconstruction analysis indicated that the ancestral Australian Coptotermes was likely to have been a tree nester, and that mound-building behaviour has arisen multiple times. The Australian Coptotermes were found to have diversified ∼13 million years ago, which plausibly matches with the narrowing of the Arafura Sea allowing Asian taxa to cross into Australia. The first diverging Coptotermes group was found to be African, casting doubt on the previously raised hypothesis that the genus has an Asian origin.

Drywood termites in Queensland.

Discusses: Biology and damage, native drywood termite, West Indian drywood termite, building inspection, prevention, treating active infestation.

Subterranean termites in Queensland.

Describes the termites found in Queensland, the termite colony, nests, feeding habits and behaviour, natural enemies, distribution and importance.

Susceptibility of Coconut Wood to Damage by Subterranean Termites (Isoptera: Mastotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae)

Two field trials were conducted with untreated coconut wood (“cocowood”) of varying densities against the subterranean termites Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt) and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt in northern Queensland, Australia. Both trials ran for 16 weeks during the summer months. Cocowood densities ranged from 256 kg/m3 to 1003 kg/m3, and the test specimens were equally divided between the two termite trial sites. Termite pressure was high at both sites where mean mass losses in the Scots pine sapwood feeder specimens were: 100% for C. acinaciformis and 74.7% for M. darwiniensis. Termite species and cocowood density effects were significant. Container and position effects were not significant. Mastotermes darwiniensis fed more on the cocowood than did C. acinaciformis despite consuming less of the Scots pine than did C. acinaciformis. Overall the susceptibility of cocowood to C. acinaciformis and M. darwiniensis decreases with increasing density, but all densities (apart from a few at the high end of the density range) could be considered susceptible, particularly to M. darwiniensis. Some deviations from this general trend are discussed as well as implications for the utilisation of cocowood as a building resource.

Eco-Taxonomic Insights into Actinomycete Symbionts of Termites for Discovery of Novel Bioactive Compounds

Termites play a major role in foraging and degradation of plant biomass as well as cultivating bioactive microorganisms for their defense. Current advances in “omics” sciences are revealing insights into function-related presence of these symbionts, and their related biosynthetic activities and genes identified in gut symbiotic bacteria might offer a significant potential for biotechnology and biodiscovery. Actinomycetes have been the major producers of bioactive compounds with an extraordinary range of biological activities. These metabolites have been in use as anticancer agents, immune suppressants, and most notably, as antibiotics. Insect-associated actinomycetes have also been reported to produce a range of antibiotics such as dentigerumycin and mycangimycin. Advances in genomics targeting a single species of the unculturable microbial members are currently aiding an improved understanding of the symbiotic interrelationships among the gut microorganisms as well as revealing the taxonomical identity and functions of the complex multilayered symbiotic actinofloral layers. If combined with target-directed approaches, these molecular advances can provide guidance towards the design of highly selective culturing methods to generate further information related to the physiology and growth requirements of these bioactive actinomycetes associated with the termite guts. This chapter provides an overview on the termite gut symbiotic actinoflora in the light of current advances in the “omics” science, with examples of their detection and selective isolation from the guts of the Sunshine Coast regional termite Coptotermes lacteus in Queensland, Australia

Long-term effects of Macroternies termites, herbivores and annual early fire on woody undergrowth community in Sudanian woodland, Burkina Faso

Termites, herbivores and fire are recognized as major guilds that structure woody plant communities in African savanna and woodland ecosystems. An understanding of their interaction is crucial to design appropriate management regimes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term impacts of herbivore, fire and termite activities on regeneration of trees. Permanent experimental quadrats were established in 1992 in the Sudanian woodland of Burkina Faso subjected to grazing by livestock and annual early fire and the control. Within the treatment quadrats, an inventory of the woody undergrowth community was conducted on termitaria occupied by Macrotermes subhyalinus, extended termitosphere (within 5 m radius from the mound base) and adjacent area (beyond 5 m from the mound base). Hierarchical analysis was performed to determine significant differences in species richness, abundance and diversity indices among vegetation patches within fire and herbivory treatments. Grazed quadrats had significantly (P < 0.001) more species and stem density of woody undergrowth than non-grazed quadrats but maintained similar level of species richness and stem density of woody undergrowth on termitaria. There were not significant differences (P>0.05) in species richness and stem density between burnt and unburnt quadrats. Termitaria supported a highly diverse woody undergrowth with higher stem density than either the extended termitosphere or rest of quadrats. The density of woody undergrowth was significantly related with mature trees of selected species on termitaria (R-2 = 0.593; P<0.001) than that on the extended termitosphere (R-2 = 0.333; P<0.001) and adjacent area (R-2 = 0.197; P<0.001). It can be concluded that termites facilitate the regeneration of woody species while grazing and annual early fire play a minor role in the regeneration of woody species. The current policy that prohibits grazing should be revised to accommodate the interests of livestock herders. (C) 2014 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

The influence of termites on soil sheeting properties varies depending on the materials on which they feed

Fungus-growing termites are involved in many ecological processes and play a central role in influencing soil dynamics in the tropics. The physical and chemical properties of their nest structures have been largely described; however less information is available concerning the relatively temporary structures made above-ground to access food items and protect the foraging space (the soil `sheetings'). This study investigated whether the soil physical and chemical properties of these constructions are constant or if they vary depending on the type of food they cover. Soil samples and soil sheetings were collected in a forest in India, from leaves on the ground (LEAF), fallen branches (WOOD), and vertical soil sheetings covering the bark of trees (TREE). In this environment, termite diversity was dominated by Odontotermes species, and especially Odontotermes feae and Odontotermes obesus. However, there was no clear niche differentiation and, for example, O. feae termites were found on all the materials. Compared with the putative parent soil (control), TREE sheetings showed the greatest (and most significant) differences (higher clay content and smaller clay particle sizes, lower C and N content and smaller delta C-13 and delta N-15), while LEAF sheetings were the least modified, though still significantly different than the control soil. We suggest that the termite diversity is a less important driver of potential soil modification than sheeting diversity. Further, there is evidence that construction properties are adapted to their prospective life-span, with relatively long-lasting structures being most different from the parent soil. (C) 2015 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

The taxonomic status of pest species of Coptotermes in Southeast Asia: Resolving the paradox in the pest status of the termites, Coptotermes gestroi, C-havilandi and C-travians (Isoptera : Rhinotermitidae)

The taxonomic status of Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann), C. havilandi Holmgren, C. travians (Haviland) and C. borneensis Oshima (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) is revised. The apparent discrepancy between the reported importance of C. havitandi in countries to which it has been introduced and the region from which it originated is shown to be due to misidentification and taxonomic confusion between C. travians, C. havilandi and C. gestroi. Based on an examination of specimens from Southeast Asia, two species are recognized, namely C. gestroi and C. travians. Coptotermes havilandi, described from imagos, is shown to be the same species as C. gestro described earlier from the soldier caste, and is designated a junior synonym. Coptotermes gestroi occurs from Assam through Burma and Thailand to Malaysia and the Indonesian archipelago, and has been introduced into other geographic regions, including parts of North and South America and the Caribbean. It is frequently found damaging wood in buildings, and is often intercepted outside its range in cargo onboard ships and sailing vessels, which is a likely mechanism for its spread to new geographical areas. Coptotermes gestroi has been misidentified in much literature as C. travians. Conversely, C. travians has been misidentified in recent literature in Peninsular Malaysia as C. havilandi and was redescribed from Borneo as C. borneensis, which is here designated a junior synonym of C. travians. It has a known distribution from Peninsular Malaysia to Borneo, and has not been found infesting wood in buildings. It is envisaged that the resolution of this taxonomic problem will enable the deployment of common pest management strategies for C. gestro the primary pest species of Coptotermes originating from Southeast Asia.

Soldier head morphology of the Neotropical termites: Embiratermes festivellus Silvestri and Spinitermes brevicornutus (Desneux) (Isoptera, Termitidae)

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)