Development of an optimized methodology for tensile testing of carbon steels in hydrogen environment

The study was performed at OCAS, the Steel Research Centre of ArcelorMittal for the Industry market. The major aim of this research was to obtain an optimized tensile testing methodology with in-situ H-charging to reveal the hydrogen embrittlement in various high strength steels. The second aim of this study has been the mechanical characterization of the hydrogen effect on hight strength carbon steels with varying microstructure, i.e. ferrite-martensite and ferrite-bainite grades. The optimal parameters for H-charging - which influence the tensile test results (sample geometry type of electrolyte, charging methods effect of steel type, etc.) - were defined and applied to Slow Strain Rate testing, Incremental Step Loading and Constant Load Testing. To better understand the initiation and propagation of cracks during tensile testing with in-situ H-charging, and to make the correlation with crystallographic orientation, some materials have been analyzed in the SEM in combination with the EBSD technique. The introduction of a notch on the tensile samples permits to reach a significantly improved reproducibility of the results. Comparing the various steel grades reveals that Dual Phase (ferrite-martensite) steels are more sensitive to hydrogen induced cracking than the FB (ferritic-bainitic) ones. This higher sensitivity to hydrogen was found back in the reduced failure times, increased creep rates and enhanced crack initiation (SEM) for the Dual Phase steels in comparison with the FB steels.

Evaluation of tensile tetention of Y-TZP crowns after long-term aging: Effect of the core substrate and crown surface conditioning

This study evaluated the effect of the core substrate type (dentin and composite resin) on the retention of crowns made of yttrium oxide stabilized tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (Y-TZP), submitted to three inner surface conditionings. For this purpose, 72 freshly extracted molars were embedded in acrylic resin, perpendicular to the long axis, and prepared for full crowns: 36 specimens had crown preparations in dentin; the remaining 36 teeth had the crowns removed, and crown preparations were reconstructed with composite resin plus fiber posts with dimensions identical to the prepared dentin. The preparations were impressed using addition silicone, and 72 Y-TZP copings for the tensile test were produced. Cementation was performed with a dual-cured cement containing phosphate monomers. For cementation, the crown preparation (dentin or resin) was conditioned with the adhesive system, and the ceramic was subjected to one of three surface treatments: isopropyl alcohol, tribochemical silica coating, or thin low-fusing glassy porcelain layer application plus silanization. After 24 hours, all specimens were submitted to thermocycling (6000 cycles) and placed in a special tensile testing device in a universal testing machine to determine failure loads. The failure modes of all samples were analyzed under a stereomicroscope. Two-way analysis of variance showed that the surface treatment and substrate type (alpha=0.05) affected the tensile retention results. The dentin substrate presented the highest tensile retention values, regardless of the surface treatment. When the substrate was resin, the tribochemical silica coating and low-fusing glaze application plus silanization groups showed the higher retention values.

Laser Shock Processing influence on local properties and overall tensile behavior of friction stir welded joints

Based on laser beam intensities above 109 W/cm2 with pulse energy of several Joules and duration of nanoseconds, Laser Shock Processing (LSP) is capable of inducing a surface compressive residual stress field. The paper presents experimental results showing the ability of LSP to improve the mechanical strength and cracking resistance of AA2024-T351 friction stir welded (FSW) joints. After introducing the FSW and LSP procedures, the results of microstructural analysis and micro-hardness are discussed. Video Image Correlation was used to measure the displacement and strain fields produced during tensile testing of flat specimens; the local and overall tensile behavior of native FSW joints vs. LSP treated were analyzed. Further, results of slow strain rate tensile testing of the FSW joints, native and LSP treated, performed in 3.5% NaCl solution are presented. The ability of LSP to improve the structural behavior of the FSW joints is underscored.

Analysis of crystallographic slip and grain boundary sliding in a Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn (at%)-0.8 vol%TiB2 alloy by high temperature in situ mechanical testing

This work aims to contribute to a further understanding of the fundamentals of crystallographic slip and grain boundary sliding in the γ-TiAl Ti–45Al–2Nb–2Mn (at%)–0.8 vol%TiB2 intermetallic alloy, by means of in situ high-temperature tensile testing combined with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Several microstructures, containing different fractions and sizes of lamellar colonies and equiaxed γ-grains, were fabricated by either centrifugal casting or powder metallurgy, followed by heat treatment at 1300 °C and furnace cooling. in situ tensile and tensile-creep experiments were performed in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) at temperatures ranging from 580 °C to 700 °C. EBSD was carried out in selected regions before and after straining. Our results suggest that, during constant strain rate tests, true twin γ/γ interfaces are the weakest barriers to dislocations and, thus, that the relevant length scale might be influenced by the distance between non-true twin boundaries. Under creep conditions both grain/colony boundary sliding (G/CBS) and crystallographic slip are observed to contribute to deformation. The incidence of boundary sliding is particularly high in γ grains of duplex microstructures. The slip activity during creep deformation in different microstructures was evaluated by trace analysis. Special emphasis was placed in distinguishing the compliance of different slip events with the Schmid law with respect to the applied stress.

Erosion-fatigue of steam turbine blades

The premature failure of steam turbine rotor blades, manufactured in forged 12% Cr-NiMoV martensitic stainless steel, was investigated using visual inspection non-destructive testing, macro and microfractography, microstructural characterization, EDS microanalysis, chemical analysis, micro hardness and tensile testing. The blades belonged to the last stage of a thermoelectric plant steam turbine generator (140 MV A). The results indicated that the failure of the blades was promoted by foreign-particle erosion, which attacked preferentially the low-pressure side of the lower trailing edge of the blades. The resulting wear grooves acted as stress raisers and promoted the nucleation of fatigue cracks, which probably grew during the transition events of the steam turbine operation. Finally, water drop erosion was observed on the blade upper leading edge (low-pressure side). (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Texture and mechanical properties evolution of a deep drawing medium carbon steel during cold rolling and subsequent recrystallization

Medium carbon steels are mostly used for simple applications; however, new applications have been developed for which good sheet metal formability is required. These types of steels have an inherent low formability. A medium-carbon hot-rolled SAE 1050 steel was selected for this study. It has been cold rolled with thickness reductions varying between 7 and 80%. The samples obtained were used to evaluate the strain hardening curve. For samples with a 50 and 80% thickness reduction, an annealing heat treatment was performed to achieve recrystallization. The material was characterized in the ""as-received"", cold rolled and annealed conditions using several methods: optical metallography, X-ray diffraction (texture), Vickers hardness, and tensile testing. For large thickness reductions, the SAE 1050 steel presented low elongation, less than 2%, and yield strength (YS) and tensile strength (TS) around 1400 MPa. Texture in the ""as-received"" condition showed strong components on the {001} plane, in the < 100 >, < 210 > and (110) directions. After cold rolling, the texture did not present any significant changes for small thickness reductions, however. It changed completely for large ones, where gamma, < 111 >//ND, alpha, < 110 > HRD, and gamma prime, < 223 >//ND, fibres were strengthened. After annealing, the microstructure of the SAE 1050 steel was characterized by recrystallized ferrite and globular cementite. There was little change in the alpha fibre for the 50% reduction, whereas for the 80% reduction, its intensity increased. Both gamma and gamma prime fibres vanished upon annealing for 50 and 80% reductions alike. (c) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Medium carbon steel deep drawing: A study on the evolution of mechanical properties, texture and simulations, from cold rolling to the end product

Medium carbon steels are mostly used for simple applications; nevertheless new applications have been developed for which good sheet formability is required. This class of steels has an inherent low formability. A medium carbon hot rolled SAE 1050 steel has been selected for this study. It has been cold rolled with reductions in the 7-80% range. Samples have been used to assess the cold work hardening curve. For samples with a 50 and 80% thickness reduction, an annealing heat treatment has been performed to obtain recrystallization. The material has been characterized in the ""as received"", cold rolled and annealed conditions, using several methods: optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction (texture), Vickers hardness and tensile testing. The 50% cold rolled and recrystallized material has been further studied in terms of sheet metal formability and texture evolution during the actual stamping of a steel toecap that has been used to validate the finite element simulations. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Stress cracking and photodegradation behavior of polycarbonate. The combination of two major causes of polymer failure

This work investigates the effects of photodegradation on the environmental stress cracking resistance of polycarbonate (PC). Injection molded samples were exposed to the ultraviolet (UV) light for various times in the laboratory prior to solvent contact. The bars were then stressed with two different loads in a tensile testing machine under the presence of ethanol. During this period, the stress relaxation was monitored and, after unloading, the ultimate properties were evaluated. Complementary tests were done by size exclusion chromatography, UV-visible spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and light microscopy. The results indicated that ethanol causes significant modification in PC, with extensive surface crazing as well as reduction in mechanical properties. The previous degraded samples showed a higher level of stress relaxation and a greater loss in tensile strength in comparison with the undegraded ones. The synergist action of photodegradation and stress cracking in PC may be a consequence of the chemical changes caused by oxidation.

A study on stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement of AZ31 magnesium alloy

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior and pre-exposure embrittlement of AZ31 magnesium alloy have been studied by slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) tests in this paper. It is showed that AZ31 sheet material is susceptible to SCC in distilled water, ASTM D1.387 solution, 0.01 M NaCl and 0.1 M NaCl solution. The AZ31 magnesium alloy also becomes embrittled if pre-exposed to 0.01 M NaCl solution prior to tensile testing. The degree of embrittlement increased with increasing the pre-exposure time, It is proposed that both the pre-exposure embrittlement and SCC were due to hydrogen which reduces the cohesive strength. i,e,. hydrogen embrittlement, (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Numerical and experimental analyses of biocomposites reinforced with natural fibres

n the last decades the biocomposites have been widely used in the construction, automobile and aerospace industries. Not only the interface transition zone (ITZ) but also the heterogeneity of natural fibres affects the mechanical behaviour of these composites. This work focuses on the numerical and experimental analyses of a polymeric composite fabricated with epoxy resin and unidirectional sisal and banana fibres. A three-dimensional model was set to analyze the composites using the elastic properties of the individual phases. In addition, a two-dimensional model was set taking into account the effective composite properties obtained by micromechanical models. A tensile testing was performed to validate the numerical analyses and evaluating the interface condition of the constitutive phases.

Determinação das propriedades mecânicas à tração de adesivos estruturais frágeis e dúcteis

A crescente evolução na tecnologia das juntas coladas conferiu um potencial atractivo às ligações adesivas, com aplicações nas mais variadas indústrias. Isto deve-se não só aos aspetos económicos, tais como a melhoria da cadência de produção mas também à resistência mecânica que estas proporcionam. A possibilidade de ligar facilmente materiais distintos, a distribuição mais uniforme das tensões, a melhor resistência à fadiga e a elevada capacidade de amortecimento de vibrações estão entre as principais vantagens da utilização deste tipo de ligação. Estas propriedades transformam as juntas coladas numas das preferidas no momento de seleção de meios de união. O trabalho desenvolvido nesta dissertação enquadra-se no âmbito das ligações adesivas e tem como principais objetivos a produção de uma ferramenta para a produção de provetes de adesivo, assim como a determinação das propriedades mecânicas à tração dos mesmos para testar o desempenho do molde fabricado. Para tal, utilizou-se um adesivo frágil (Araldite® AV 138), um dúctil (Araldite® 2015) e um muito dúctil (SikaForce® 7888). Paralelamente é selecionado o método mais adequado na obtenção destes provetes, designadamente escolhendo entre a moldação em molde aberto e a injeção em molde fechado. Com vista à obtenção dos provetes, foi projetado e construído um molde em aço. Recorrendo à máquina de tração Shimadzu AG – X 100, realizaram-se os respetivos ensaios de tração, para a determinação de todas as propriedades mecânicas dos adesivos. Para efeitos de comparação de resultados foram utilizados dois tipos de extensómetros, um mecânico e um ótico. Os resultados experimentais permitiram observar que a presença de vazios afetou especialmente a deformação de rotura e a tensão de rotura. Detetaram-se pequenas discordâncias, comparativamente com os estudos publicados, de algumas características mecânicas obtidas dos diversos adesivos utilizados. Constatou-se também um ligeiro desfasamento entre os valores adquiridos com os dois tipos de extensómetros utilizados.

Caraterização das propriedades mecânicas de um adesivo estrutural de alta ductilidade

A tecnologia de ligação por adesivos estruturais tem vindo a ser utilizada ao longo de várias décadas, permitindo solucionar diversos problemas associados a técnicas chamadas "tradicionais" de ligação, como a soldadura, a rebitagem ou a ligação aparafusada. Esta é uma alternativa viável para substituir as ligações mecânicas, devido a diversos fatores como o menor peso estrutural, menor custo de fabricação e capacidade de união de diferentes materiais. O crescente recurso a materiais compósitos em diversas indústrias, nomeadamente a aeronáutica e naval, levaram ao consequente aumento da aplicação de ligações adesivas, por serem indicadas como forma de união destes materiais, onde é de enaltecer a sua elevada resistência à fadiga. Uma junta adesiva está maioritariamente sujeita a esforços de corte e arrancamento e portanto o conhecimento dos módulos de elasticidade à tração (E) ou corte (G) do adesivo, e ainda as resistências máximas à tração e ao corte, não é suficiente quando se pretende prever o comportamento da mesma. Na verdade, torna-se necessário abranger na análise a plastificação progressiva verificada nas juntas adesivas antes da rotura, sendo necessário o conhecimento de parâmetros tais como a taxa crítica de libertação de energia de deformação à tração (GIc) e corte (GIIc). Este trabalho pretende estudar um adesivo estrutural recentemente lançado no mercado, carecendo portanto da sua caracterização, para facilitar a previsão da resistência de estruturas adesivas ligadas com o mesmo. São 4 os ensaios a realizar: ensaios à tração de provetes em bruto, ensaios ao corte com a geometria Thick Adherend Shear Test (TAST), ensaios Double-Cantilever Beam (DCB) e ensaios End-Notched Flexure (ENF). Com a realização dos ensaios referidos, serão determinadas as propriedades mecânicas e de fratura à tração e ao corte, e serão fornecidos os parâmetros para a previsão da resistência de juntas adesivas com este adesivo por uma variedade de métodos, desde métodos analíticos mais expeditos até aos métodos numéricos mais avançados existentes atualmente. Os resultados foram de encontro aos disponibilizados pelo fabricante, sempre que estes se encontravam disponíveis, obtendo-se discrepâncias bastante reduzidas nos diversos parâmetros determinados.

Estudo da resistência e mecanismos de dano em juntas adesivas entre materiais compósitos com defeitos de adesão

A necessidade de utilizar métodos de ligação entre componentes de forma mais rápida, eficaz e com melhores resultados tem causado a crescente utilização das juntas adesivas, em detrimento dos métodos tradicionais de ligação. A utilização das juntas adesivas tem vindo a aumentar em diversas aplicações industriais por estas apresentarem vantagens, das quais se destacam a redução de peso, redução de concentrações de tensões e facilidade de fabrico. No entanto, uma das limitações das juntas adesivas é a dificuldade em prever a resistência da junta após fabrico e durante a sua vida útil devido à presença de defeitos no adesivo. Os defeitos são normalmente gerados pela preparação inadequada das juntas ou degradação do adesivo devido ao ambiente (por exemplo, humidade), reduzindo a qualidade da ligação e influenciando a resistência da junta. Neste trabalho é apresentado um estudo experimental e numérico de juntas de sobreposição simples (JSS) com a inclusão de defeitos centrados na camada de adesivo para comprimentos de sobreposição (LO) diferentes. Os adesivos utilizados foram o Araldite® AV138, apresentado como sendo frágil, e o adesivo Sikaforce® 7752, intitulado como adesivo dúctil. A parte experimental consistiu no ensaio à tração das diferentes JSS permitindo a obtenção das curvas força-deslocamento (P-δ). A análise numérica por modelos de dano coesivo (MDC) foi realizada para analisar as tensões de arrancamento ((σy) e as tensões de corte (τxy) na camada adesiva, para estudar a variável de dano do MDC durante o processo de rotura e para avaliar a capacidade dos MDC na previsão da resistência da junta. Constatou-se um efeito significativo dos defeitos de diferentes dimensões na resistência das juntas, que também depende do tipo de adesivo utilizado e do valor de LO. Os modelos numéricos permitiram a descrição detalhada do comportamento das juntas e previsão de resistência, embora para o adesivo dúctil a utilização de uma lei coesiva triangular tenha provocado alguma discrepância relativamente aos resultados experimentais.

Caraterização das propriedades macânicas e de fratura de um adesivo estrutural de alta ductilidade

As juntas adesivas são uma alternativa viável para substituir ligações comuns como as mecânicas ou soldadas, devido a diversas vantagens como a possibilidade de união de materiais de natureza diferente, maior leveza, menores custos inerentes ao fabrico e ainda prevenção da corrosão galvânica que pode ocorrer nas ligações entre dois materiais metálicos diferentes. A resistência de uma junta depende, para um determinado tipo de solicitação imposta, da distribuição de tensões no interior da junta. Por outro lado, a geometria das juntas, as propriedades mecânicas dos adesivos e os componentes a ligar vão influenciar a distribuição de tensões. O carregamento nas camadas adesivas de uma junta poderá induzir tensões de tração, compressão, corte, arrancamento ou clivagem, ou ainda uma combinação de duas ou mais destas componentes. O objetivo da presente dissertação é a caraterização completa de um adesivo estrutural de alta ductilidade recentemente lançado no mercado (SikaPower® -4720), para facilitar o projeto e otimização de juntas adesivas ligadas com o mesmo. São quatro os ensaios a realizar: ensaios à tração de provetes maciços (também denominados de bulk), ensaios ao corte com a geometria Thick Adherend Shear Test, ensaios Double-Cantilever Beam e ainda ensaios End-Notched Flexure. Com a realização dos ensaios referidos, são determinadas as propriedades essenciais à caraterização mecânica e de fratura do adesivo. Os resultados obtidos para cada ensaio resultaram em propriedades medidas com elevada repetibilidade, da mesma maneira que se revelaram de acordo com os dados disponibilizados pelo fabricante, sempre que estes estavam disponíveis.

Novel auxetic structures from basalt braided composites for structural applications

Auxetic materials are a class of materials behaves unusual way compared to regular materials i.e. possess negative Poisson’s ratio. This paper reports, the development of auxetic structures based on re-entrant hexagon design from braided composite materials and testing of the mechanical properties (tensile property, auxetic property and work of rupture). The structure developed from glass and basalt braided composite rods and properties were compared between them. Later, the basic re-entrant hexagon design was modified with vertical straight rods to improve their mechanical behavior and their auxetic property was studied. Auxetic behavior of these structures was studied in a tensile testing machine taking video during testing by Digital camera, later the video converted into images to measure the strain values using simple software, ImageJ. Along with experimental work, analytical model was used to calculate the Poisson’s ratio of basic structure and results were compared