I. Application of multi-Regge theory to production processes. II. High energy model for proton-proton scattering

This dissertation consists of two parts. The first part presents an explicit procedure for applying multi-Regge theory to production processes. As an illustrative example, the case of three body final states is developed in detail, both with respect to kinematics and multi-Regge dynamics. Next, the experimental consistency of the multi-Regge hypothesis is tested in a specific high energy reaction; the hypothesis is shown to provide a good qualitative fit to the data. In addition, the results demonstrate a severe suppression of double Pomeranchon exchange, and show the coupling of two "Reggeons" to an external particle to be strongly damped as the particle's mass increases. Finally, with the use of two body Regge parameters, order of magnitude estimates of the multi-Regge cross section for various reactions are given.

The second part presents a diffraction model for high energy proton-proton scattering. This model developed by Chou and Yang assumes high energy elastic scattering results from absorption of the incident wave into the many available inelastic channels, with the absorption proportional to the amount of interpenetrating hadronic matter. The assumption that the hadronic matter distribution is proportional to the charge distribution relates the scattering amplitude for pp scattering to the proton form factor. The Chou-Yang model with the empirical proton form factor as input is then applied to calculate a high energy, fixed momentum transfer limit for the scattering cross section, This limiting cross section exhibits the same "dip" or "break" structure indicated in present experiments, but falls significantly below them in magnitude. Finally, possible spin dependence is introduced through a weak spin-orbit type term which gives rather good agreement with pp polarization data.

Investigation of the nuclear matter density distributions of the exotic 12 Be, 14 Be and 8 B nuclei by elastic proton scattering in inverse kinematics

The proton-nucleus elastic scattering at intermediate energies is a well-established method for the investigation of the nuclear matter distribution in stable nuclei and was recently applied also for the investigation of radioactive nuclei using the method of inverse kinematics. In the current experiment, the differential cross sections for proton elastic scattering on the isotopes $^{7,9,10,11,12,14}$Be and $^8$B were measured. The experiment was performed using the fragment separator at GSI, Darmstadt to produce the radioactive beams. The main part of the experimental setup was the time projection ionization chamber IKAR which was simultaneously used as hydrogen target and a detector for the recoil protons. Auxiliary detectors for projectile tracking and isotope identification were also installed. As results from the experiment, the absolute differential cross sections d$sigma$/d$t$ as a function of the four momentum transfer $t$ were obtained. In this work the differential cross sections for elastic p-$^{12}$Be, p-$^{14}$Be and p-$^{8}$B scattering at low $t$ ($t leq$~0.05~(GeV/c)$^2$) are presented. The measured cross sections were analyzed within the Glauber multiple-scattering theory using different density parameterizations, and the nuclear matter density distributions and radii of the investigated isotopes were determined. The analysis of the differential cross section for the isotope $^{14}$Be shows that a good description of the experimental data is obtained when density distributions consisting of separate core and halo components are used. The determined {it rms} matter radius is $3.11 pm 0.04 pm 0.13$~fm. In the case of the $^{12}$Be nucleus the results showed an extended matter distribution as well. For this nucleus a matter radius of $2.82 pm 0.03 pm 0.12$~fm was determined. An interesting result is that the free $^{12}$Be nucleus behaves differently from the core of $^{14}$Be and is much more extended than it. The data were also compared with theoretical densities calculated within the FMD and the few-body models. In the case of $^{14}$Be, the calculated cross sections describe the experimental data well while, in the case of $^{12}$Be there are discrepancies in the region of high momentum transfer. Preliminary experimental results for the isotope $^8$B are also presented. An extended matter distribution was obtained (though much more compact as compared to the neutron halos). A proton halo structure was observed for the first time with the proton elastic scattering method. The deduced matter radius is $2.60pm 0.02pm 0.26$~fm. The data were compared with microscopic calculations in the frame of the FMD model and reasonable agreement was observed. The results obtained in the present analysis are in most cases consistent with the previous experimental studies of the same isotopes with different experimental methods (total interaction and reaction cross section measurements, momentum distribution measurements). For future investigation of the structure of exotic nuclei a universal detector system EXL is being developed. It will be installed at the NESR at the future FAIR facility where higher intensity beams of radioactive ions are expected. The usage of storage ring techniques provides high luminosity and low background experimental conditions. Results from the feasibility studies of the EXL detector setup, performed at the present ESR storage ring, are presented.

Aufbau und Inbetriebnahme eines Protonen-Polarimeters an MAMI und Messung der Proton-Polarisation in der Reaktion p (e,e'p) pi 0 in paralleler Kinematik im Bereich der Delta(1232)-Resonanz

Das Detektorsystem des Spektrometers Ader Drei-Spektrometer-Anlage am MainzerElektronenbeschleuniger MAMI wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeitum ein Fokalebenen-Proton-Polarimeter (FPP) ergänzt.Dazu wurden zwei Horizontale Doppeldriftkammern entworfenund zusammen mit einem Kohlenstoffanalysator hinter derFokalebene des Spektrometers aufgebaut.Zur Berechnung der Spin-Präzession in den inhomogenenMagnetfeldern des Spektrometers wurde das Programm QSPINerstellt und damit eine Spin-Transfer-Matrix (STM) erzeugt,mit der über eine Fitprozedur die Polarisationskomponentender Protonen in der Streuebene an die im FPP gemessenenangepaßt werden können.Mit elastischen Elektron-Proton-Streuexperimenten wurdenfalsche Asymmetrien im FPP untersucht, die berechnete STMbestätigt, die inklusive Proton-Kohlenstoff-Analysierstärkeauf einen größeren Streuwinkelbereich erweitert und dasVerhältnis zwischen dem elektrischen und dem magnetischenSachs-Formfaktor des Protons gemessen.Zur Untersuchung der Coulomb-Quadrupol-Übergangsamplitudebei der Anregung des Nukleons zur Delta(1232)-Resonanzwurden in einem Pion-Elektroproduktions-Experiment am Protonmit dem FPP die Komponenten der Polarisation derRückstoßprotonen in paralleler Kinematik gemessen.

Breaking time-inversion invariance through decoherence : energetic consequences for attosecond neutron scattering

Nuclei and electrons in condensed matter and/or molecules are usually entangled, due to the prevailing (mainly electromagnetic) interactions. However, the "environment" of a microscopic scattering system (e.g. a proton) causes ultrafast decoherence, thus making atomic and/or nuclear entanglement e®ects not directly accessible to experiments. However, our neutron Compton scattering experiments from protons (H-atoms) in condensed systems and molecules have a characteristic collisional time about 100|1000 attoseconds. The quantum dynamics of an atom in this ultrashort, but ¯nite, time window is governed by non-unitary time evolution due to the aforementioned decoherence. Unexpectedly, recent theoretical investigations have shown that decoherence can also have the following energetic consequences. Disentangling two subsystems A and B of a quantum system AB is tantamount to erasure of quantum phase relations between A and B. This erasure is widely believed to be an innocuous process, which e.g. does not a®ect the energies of A and B. However, two independent groups proved recently that disentangling two systems, within a su±ciently short time interval, causes increase of their energies. This is also derivable by the simplest Lindblad-type master equation of one particle being subject to pure decoherence. Our neutron-proton scattering experiments with H2 molecules provide for the first time experimental evidence of this e®ect. Our results reveal that the neutron-proton collision, leading to the cleavage of the H-H bond in the attosecond timescale, is accompanied by larger energy transfer (by about 2|3%) than conventional theory predicts. Preliminary results from current investigations show qualitatively the same e®ect in the neutron-deuteron Compton scattering from D2 molecules. We interpret the experimental findings by treating the neutron-proton (or neutron-deuteron) collisional system as an entangled open quantum system being subject to fast decoherence caused by its "environment" (i.e., two electrons plus second nucleus of H2 or D2). The presented results seem to be of generic nature, and may have considerable consequences for various processes in condensed matter and molecules, e.g. in elementary chemical reactions.

Planar Edgeless Detectors for the TOTEM Experiment at the LHC

The TOTEM experiment at the LHC will measure the total proton-proton cross-section with a precision better than 1%, elastic proton scattering over a wide range in momentum transfer -t= p^2 theta^2 up to 10 GeV^2 and diffractive dissociation, including single, double and central diffraction topologies. The total cross-section will be measured with the luminosity independent method that requires the simultaneous measurements of the total inelastic rate and the elastic proton scattering down to four-momentum transfers of a few 10^-3 GeV^2, corresponding to leading protons scattered in angles of microradians from the interaction point. This will be achieved using silicon microstrip detectors, which offer attractive properties such as good spatial resolution (<20 um), fast response (O(10ns)) to particles and radiation hardness up to 10^14 "n"/cm^2. This work reports about the development of an innovative structure at the detector edge reducing the conventional dead width of 0.5-1 mm to 50-60 um, compatible with the requirements of the experiment.

Multivariate Techniques for Identifying Diffractive Interactions at the LHC

Close to one half of the LHC events are expected to be due to elastic or inelastic diffractive scattering. Still, predictions based on extrapolations of experimental data at lower energies differ by large factors in estimating the relative rate of diffractive event categories at the LHC energies. By identifying diffractive events, detailed studies on proton structure can be carried out. The combined forward physics objects: rapidity gaps, forward multiplicity and transverse energy flows can be used to efficiently classify proton-proton collisions. Data samples recorded by the forward detectors, with a simple extension, will allow first estimates of the single diffractive (SD), double diffractive (DD), central diffractive (CD), and non-diffractive (ND) cross sections. The approach, which uses the measurement of inelastic activity in forward and central detector systems, is complementary to the detection and measurement of leading beam-like protons. In this investigation, three different multivariate analysis approaches are assessed in classifying forward physics processes at the LHC. It is shown that with gene expression programming, neural networks and support vector machines, diffraction can be efficiently identified within a large sample of simulated proton-proton scattering events. The event characteristics are visualized by using the self-organizing map algorithm.

Tests of a Roman Pot Prototype for the TOTEM Experiment

The TOTEM collaboration has developed and tested the first prototype of its Roman Pots to be operated in the LHC. TOTEM Roman Pots contain stacks of 10 silicon detectors with strips oriented in two orthogonal directions. To measure proton scattering angles of a few microradians, the detectors will approach the beam centre to a distance of 10 sigma + 0.5 mm (= 1.3 mm). Dead space near the detector edge is minimised by using two novel "edgeless" detector technologies. The silicon detectors are used both for precise track reconstruction and for triggering. The first full-sized prototypes of both detector technologies as well as their read-out electronics have been developed, built and operated. The tests took place first in a fixed-target muon beam at CERN's SPS, and then in the proton beam-line of the SPS accelerator ring. We present the test beam results demonstrating the successful functionality of the system despite slight technical shortcomings to be improved in the near future.

Can the meson cloud explain the nucleon strangeness?

We use a version of the meson cloud model, including the kaon and the K-* contributions, to estimate the electric and magnetic strange form factors of the nucleon. We compare our results with the recent measurements of the strange quark contribution to parity-violating asymmetries in the forward G0 electron-proton scattering experiment. We conclude that it is very important to determine experimentally the electric and magnetic strange form factors, and not only the combination G(E)(s)+eta G(M)(s), if one does really intend to understand the strangeness of the nucleon.

Phenomenological tests for the freezing of the QCD running coupling constant

We discuss phenomenological tests for the frozen infrared behavior of the running coupling constant and gluon propagators found in some solutions of Schwinger-Dyson equations of the gluonic sector of QCD. We verify that several observables can be used in order to select the different expressions of αs found in the literature. We test the effect of the nonperturbative coupling in the τ-lepton decay rate into nonstrange hadrons, in the ρ vector meson helicity density matrix that are produced in the χc2 → ρρ decay, in the photon to pion transition form factor, and compute the cross-sections for elastic proton-proton scattering and exclusive ρ production in deep inelastic scattering. These quantities depend on the infrared behavior of the coupling constant at different levels, we discuss the reasons for this dependence and argue that the existent and future data can be used to test the approximations performed to solve the Schwinger-Dyson equations and they already seem to select one specific infrared behavior of the coupling.

Study of Z production in PbPb and pp collisions at root s(NN)=2.76 TeV in the dimuon and dielectron decay channels

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Background minimization issues for next generation hard X-ray focusing telescopes

The hard X-ray band (10 - 100 keV) has been only observed so far by collimated and coded aperture mask instruments, with a sensitivity and an angular resolution lower than two orders of magnitude as respects the current X-ray focusing telescopes operating below 10 - 15 keV. The technological advance in X-ray mirrors and detection systems is now able to extend the X-ray focusing technique to the hard X-ray domain, filling the gap in terms of observational performances and providing a totally new deep view on some of the most energetic phenomena of the Universe. In order to reach a sensitivity of 1 muCrab in the 10 - 40 keV energy range, a great care in the background minimization is required, a common issue for all the hard X-ray focusing telescopes. In the present PhD thesis, a comprehensive analysis of the space radiation environment, the payload design and the resulting prompt X-ray background level is presented, with the aim of driving the feasibility study of the shielding system and assessing the scientific requirements of the future hard X-ray missions. A Geant4 based multi-mission background simulator, BoGEMMS, is developed to be applied to any high energy mission for which the shielding and instruments performances are required. It allows to interactively create a virtual model of the telescope and expose it to the space radiation environment, tracking the particles along their path and filtering the simulated background counts as a real observation in space. Its flexibility is exploited to evaluate the background spectra of the Simbol-X and NHXM mission, as well as the soft proton scattering by the X-ray optics and the selection of the best shielding configuration. Altough the Simbol-X and NHXM missions are the case studies of the background analysis, the obtained results can be generalized to any future hard X-ray telescope. For this reason, a simplified, ideal payload model is also used to select the major sources of background in LEO. All the results are original contributions to the assessment studies of the cited missions, as part of the background groups activities.

Nucleon electromagnetic structure studies in the spacelike and timelike regions

The thesis investigates the nucleon structure probed by the electromagnetic interaction. One of the most basic observables, reflecting the electromagnetic structure of the nucleon, are the form factors, which have been studied by means of elastic electron-proton scattering with ever increasing precision for several decades. In the timelike region, corresponding with the proton-antiproton annihilation into a electron-positron pair, the present experimental information is much less accurate. However, in the near future high-precision form factor measurements are planned. About 50 years after the first pioneering measurements of the electromagnetic form factors, polarization experiments stirred up the field since the results were found to be in striking contradiction to the findings of previous form factor investigations from unpolarized measurements. Triggered by the conflicting results, a whole new field studying the influence of two-photon exchange corrections to elastic electron-proton scattering emerged, which appeared as the most likely explanation of the discrepancy. The main part of this thesis deals with theoretical studies of two-photon exchange, which is investigated particularly with regard to form factor measurements in the spacelike as well as in the timelike region. An extraction of the two-photon amplitudes in the spacelike region through a combined analysis using the results of unpolarized cross section measurements and polarization experiments is presented. Furthermore, predictions of the two-photon exchange effects on the e+p/e-p cross section ratio are given for several new experiments, which are currently ongoing. The two-photon exchange corrections are also investigated in the timelike region in the process pbar{p} -> e+ e- by means of two factorization approaches. These corrections are found to be smaller than those obtained for the spacelike scattering process. The influence of the two-photon exchange corrections on cross section measurements as well as asymmetries, which allow a direct access of the two-photon exchange contribution, is discussed. Furthermore, one of the factorization approaches is applied for investigating the two-boson exchange effects in parity-violating electron-proton scattering. In the last part of the underlying work, the process pbar{p} -> pi0 e+e- is analyzed with the aim of determining the form factors in the so-called unphysical, timelike region below the two-nucleon production threshold. For this purpose, a phenomenological model is used, which provides a good description of the available data of the real photoproduction process pbar{p} -> pi0 gamma.

Relativistic description of 3He(e,e'p)2H

The relativistic distorted-wave impulse approximation is used to describe the 3He(e, e′ p)2H process. We describe the 3He nucleus within the adiabatic hyperspherical expansion method with realistic nucleon-nucleon interactions. The overlap between the 3He and the deuteron wave functions can be accurately computed from a three-body calculation. The nucleons are described by solutions of the Dirac equation with scalar and vector (S–V) potentials. The wave function of the outgoing proton is obtained by solving the Dirac equation with a S–V optical potential fitted to elastic proton scattering data on the residual nucleus. Within this theoretical framework, we compute the cross section of the reaction and other observables like the transverse-longitudinal asymmetry, and compare them with the available experimental data measured at JLab.