A series-connected photovoltaic distributed generator capable of enhancing power quality

Design of a series-connected photovoltaic generator (SPVG) capable of enhancing power quality is investigated. Analysis of the SPVG operations under disturbance conditions shows explicitly how achievable network voltage quality is affected by the SPVG injected power and its apparent power rating, and that voltage quality can be significantly improved even with a modest level of energy storage capacity incorporated in the SPVG. A control system for the SPVG is also proposed. Both simulation and laboratory tests confirm the efficacy of the distributed generator system.

Modelling and simulation of a photovoltaic fuel cell hybrid system

A stand-alone power system is an autonomous system that supplies electricity to the user load without being connected to the electric grid. This kind of decentralized system is frequently located in remote and inaccessible areas. It is essential for about one third of the world population which are living in developed or isolated regions and have no access to an electricity utility grid. The most people live in remote and rural areas, with low population density, lacking even the basic infrastructure. The utility grid extension to these locations is not a cost effective option and sometimes technically not feasible. The purpose of this thesis is the modelling and simulation of a stand-alone hybrid power system, referred to as “hydrogen Photovoltaic-Fuel Cell (PVFC) hybrid system”. It couples a photovoltaic generator (PV), an alkaline water electrolyser, a storage gas tank, a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), and power conditioning units (PCU) to give different system topologies. The system is intended to be an environmentally friendly solution since it tries maximising the use of a renewable energy source. Electricity is produced by a PV generator to meet the requirements of a user load. Whenever there is enough solar radiation, the user load can be powered totally by the PV electricity. During periods of low solar radiation, auxiliary electricity is required. An alkaline high pressure water electrolyser is powered by the excess energy from the PV generator to produce hydrogen and oxygen at a pressure of maximum 30bar. Gases are stored without compression for short- (hourly or daily) and long- (seasonal) term. A proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is used to keep the system’s reliability at the same level as for the conventional system while decreasing the environmental impact of the whole system. The PEM fuel cell consumes gases which are produced by an electrolyser to meet the user load demand when the PV generator energy is deficient, so that it works as an auxiliary generator. Power conditioning units are appropriate for the conversion and dispatch the energy between the components of the system. No batteries are used in this system since they represent the weakest when used in PV systems due to their need for sophisticated control and their short lifetime. The model library, ISET Alternative Power Library (ISET-APL), is designed by the Institute of Solar Energy supply Technology (ISET) and used for the simulation of the hybrid system. The physical, analytical and/or empirical equations of each component are programmed and implemented separately in this library for the simulation software program Simplorer by C++ language. The model parameters are derived from manufacturer’s performance data sheets or measurements obtained from literature. The identification and validation of the major hydrogen PVFC hybrid system component models are evaluated according to the measured data of the components, from the manufacturer’s data sheet or from actual system operation. Then, the overall system is simulated, at intervals of one hour each, by using solar radiation as the primary energy input and hydrogen as energy storage for one year operation. A comparison between different topologies, such as DC or AC coupled systems, is carried out on the basis of energy point of view at two locations with different geographical latitudes, in Kassel/Germany (Europe) and in Cairo/Egypt (North Africa). The main conclusion in this work is that the simulation method of the system study under different conditions could successfully be used to give good visualization and comparison between those topologies for the overall performance of the system. The operational performance of the system is not only depending on component efficiency but also on system design and consumption behaviour. The worst case of this system is the low efficiency of the storage subsystem made of the electrolyser, the gas storage tank, and the fuel cell as it is around 25-34% at Cairo and 29-37% at Kassel. Therefore, the research for this system should be concentrated in the subsystem components development especially the fuel cell.

solaR: Solar Radiation and Photovoltaic Systems with R

The solaR package allows for reproducible research both for photovoltaics (PV) systems performance and solar radiation. It includes a set of classes, methods and functions to calculate the sun geometry and the solar radiation incident on a photovoltaic generator and to simulate the performance of several applications of the photovoltaic energy. This package performs the whole calculation procedure from both daily and intradaily global horizontal irradiation to the final productivity of grid-connected PV systems and water pumping PV systems. It is designed using a set of S4 classes whose core is a group of slots with multivariate time series. The classes share a variety of methods to access the information and several visualization methods. In addition, the package provides a tool for the visual statistical analysis of the performance of a large PV plant composed of several systems. Although solaR is primarily designed for time series associated to a location defined by its latitude/longitude values and the temperature and irradiation conditions, it can be easily combined with spatial packages for space-time analysis.

Impact of high PV penetration into distribution networks under contingencies

This paper analyzes the static voltage stability of distribution networks with photovoltaic (PV) generators under contingencies. The analysis is carried out on a widely used 16-bus test system. The paper treats the Q-V characteristics of the distribution grid for various PV penetration levels. Simulation results show that a higher penetration of PV increases the static coltage stability of the system. However, the tripping of multiple PV generators due to external disturbances, overloading and loss of distribution lines reduces the voltage stability margin of the system.

Desenvolvimento de monitoramento remoto em um sistema híbrido isolado de pequeno porte

Este trabalho visa avaliar as dificuldades e utilidades do monitoramento remoto de um sistema para o atendimento de cargas isoladas da rede elétrica, envolvendo sistemas reais em operação que podem ajudar a identificar os principais fatores que influenciam na vida útil desses dispositivos, tornando possível propor estratégias e tecnologias que melhorem a confiabilidade do sistema, possibilitem uma configuração mais adequada e reduzam os custos globais do sistema ao longo de sua vida útil. Para isso foi incorporado um sistema de monitoramento remoto via LabVIEW a um sistema híbrido isolado insta-lado em flutuante localizada as margens do lago da cidade de Tefé-AM. O sistema de geração foi composto inicialmente por um gerador fotovoltaico (FV) com potência de 2,08 kWp, dois subgeradores 1,04 kWp cada, e depois ampliado para 2,6 Wp mais 350 Wp de geração eólica. Além disso, um banco de acumuladores eletroquímicos com tensão nominal de 24 V e composto por 20 baterias de 150 Ah cada, Dois controladores de carga 24 V / 40 A e um inversor de onda senoidal de 1.500 VA. Resultados de operacionais apresentados neste trabalho ajudam a entender melhor o funcionamento desses sistemas e avaliar as barreiras encontradas no monitoramento remoto dessas unidades. Esse expe-rimento foi realizado em parceria do laboratório do Grupo de Estudos e Desenvolvimento de Alternativas Energéticas na Universidade Federal do Pará com o Núcleo de Inovação tecnológica do Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá.

Estudo e análise comparativa da eficiência de um sistema alimentado por células fotovoltaicas para utilização em luminárias do tipo LED com e sem etapas de conversão

Energy efficiency is an increasingly important issue due to the current scenario where increasing demand is growing faster than the energy supplied. It is important, therefore, analyze and minimize electrical system losses. This study conducts a comparison of a system formed by a photovoltaic generator feeding an LED lamp directly without steps DC-AC -DC conversion, and a system using these conversion steps for the same lamp power. Losses in conversion steps are quantified and the degradation of power quality occurred due to conversion is evaluated

solaR: geometría, radiación y energía solar en R

The solaR package includes a set of functions to calculate the solar radiation incident on a photovoltaic generator and simulate the performance of several applications of the photovoltaic energy. This package performs the whole calculation procedure from both daily and intradaily global horizontal irradiation to the final productivity of grid connected PV systems and water pumping PV systems. The package stands on a set of S4 classes. The core of each class is a group of slots with yearly, monthly, daily and intradaily multivariate time series (with the zoo package ). The classes share a variety of methods to access the information (for example, as.zooD provides a zoo object with the daily multivariate time series of the corresponding object) and several visualisation methods based on the lattice andlatticeExtra packages.

Sistema autónomo para carga de baterías mediante una instalación fotovoltaica con aplicación directa al vehículo eléctrico y usos

La situación energética actual es insostenible y como consecuencia se plantea un escenario próximo orientado a conseguir un futuro energético sostenible que permita el desarrollo económico y el bienestar social. La situación ambiental actual está afectada directamente por la combustión de combustibles fósiles que en 2013 constituyeron el 81% de la energía primaria utilizada por el ser humano y son la principal fuente antropogénica de gases de efecto invernadero. Los informes del IPCC1, ponen de manifiesto que el cambio climático se ha consolidado durante los últimos años y en la conferencia de la ONU sobre cambio climático de París que se celebrará a finales de 2015, se pretende que los gobiernos suscriban un acuerdo universal para limitar las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y evitar que el incremento de la temperatura media global supere los 2°C. Por otra parte, en el interior de las ciudades es especialmente preocupante, por su efecto directo sobre la salud humana, el impacto ambiental producido por las emisiones de NOx que generan el transporte de personas y mercancías. El sector del transporte fue responsable en 2012 del 27,9% del consumo final de energía. Una vez expuesto el escenario energético y ambiental actual, en esta tesis, se analiza la eficiencia de un sistema autónomo fotovoltaico para la carga de baterías de vehículos eléctricos y el uso del mismo con otras cargas, con el objetivo de aprovechar al máximo la energía eléctrica generada y contribuir a la utilización de energía limpia que no produzca impacto ambiental. Como primer paso para el desarrollo de la tesis se hizo un estudio de trabajos previos comenzando por las primeras aplicaciones de la energía fotovoltaica en los vehículos solares para después pasar a trabajos más recientes enfocados al suministro de energía a los vehículos eléctricos. También se hizo este estudio sobre las metodologías de simulación en los sistemas fotovoltaicos y en el modelado de distintos componentes. Posteriormente se eligieron, dentro de la amplia oferta existente en el mercado, los componentes con características técnicas más adecuadas para este tipo de instalaciones y para las necesidades que se pretenden cubrir. A partir de los parámetros técnicos de los componentes elegidos para configurar la instalación autónoma y utilizando modelos contrastados de distintos componentes, se ha desarrollado un modelo de simulación en ordenador del sistema completo con el que se han hecho simulaciones con distintos modos de demanda de energía eléctrica, según los modos de carga disponibles en el vehículo eléctrico para corriente alterna monofásica de 230 V. También se han simulado distintos tamaños del generador fotovoltaico y del sistema de acumulación de energía eléctrica para poder determinar la influencia de estos parámetros en los balances energéticos del sistema. Utilizando recursos propios el doctorando ha realizado la instalación real de un sistema fotovoltaico que incluye sistema de acumulación e inversor en un edificio de su propiedad. Para la realización de la tesis, La Fundación de Fomento e Innovación Industrial (F2I2) ha facilitado al doctorando un dispositivo que permite realizar la alimentación del vehículo eléctrico en modo 2 (este modo emplea un adaptador que incorpora dispositivos de seguridad y se comunica con el vehículo permitiendo ajustar la velocidad de recarga) y que ha sido necesario para los trabajos desarrollados. Se ha utilizado la red eléctrica como sistema de apoyo de la instalación fotovoltaica para permitir la recarga en el modo 2 que requiere más potencia que la proporcionada por el sistema fotovoltaico instalado. Se han analizado mediante simulación distintos regímenes de carga que se han estudiado experimentalmente en la instalación realizada, a la vez que se han hecho ensayos que se han reproducido mediante simulación con los mismos valores de radiación solar y temperatura con objeto de contrastar el modelo. Se han comparado los resultados experimentales con los obtenidos mediante simulación con objeto de caracterizar el comportamiento del sistema de acumulación (energía eléctrica suministrada y tensión de salida en las baterías) y del generador fotovoltaico (energía eléctrica fotovoltaica suministrada). Por último, se ha realizado un estudio económico de la instalación autónoma fotovoltaica ejecutada y simulada. En el mismo se ha planteado la utilización de fondos propios (como realmente se ha llevado a cabo) y la utilización de financiación, para determinar dos posibles escenarios que pudieran ser de utilidad a un propietario de vehículo eléctrico. Se han comparado los resultados obtenidos en los dos escenarios propuestos del estudio económico del sistema, en cuanto a los parámetros de tiempo de retorno de la inversión, valor actual neto de la inversión y tasa interna de retorno de la misma. Las conclusiones técnicas obtenidas, permiten la utilización del sistema con los modos de carga ensayados y otro tipo de cargas que aprovechen la generación eléctrica del sistema. Las baterías ofrecen mejor comportamiento cuando el aporte fotovoltaico está presente, pero no considera adecuado la conexión de cargas elevadas a un sistema de acumulación de gel (plomo-acido) como el que se ha utilizado, debido al comportamiento de este tipo de baterías ante demandas de intensidad de corriente eléctrica elevadas. Por otra parte, el comportamiento de este tipo de baterías con valores de intensidad de corriente eléctrica inferiores a 10 A en ausencia de energía fotovoltaica, con el objetivo de utilizar la generación de energía eléctrica diaria acumulada en el sistema, sí resulta interesante y ofrece un buen comportamiento del sistema de acumulación. Las circunstancias actuales de mercado, que carece de sistemas de acumulación de litio con precios de compra interesantes, no han permitido poder experimentar este sistema de acumulación en la instalación autónoma fotovoltaica ejecutada, tampoco se ha podido obtener el favor de ningún fabricante para ello. Actualmente hay disponibles sistemas de acumulación en litio que no se comercializan en España y que serían adecuados para el sistema de acumulación de energía propuesto en este estudio, que deja abierta las puertas para futuros trabajos de investigación. Las conclusiones económicas obtenidas, rentabilizan el uso de una instalación autónoma fotovoltaica con consumo instantáneo, sin acumulación de energía eléctrica. El futuro de conexión a red por parte de estas instalaciones, cuando se regule, aportará un incentivo económico para rentabilizar con menos tiempo las instalaciones autónomas fotovoltaicas, esto también deja la puerta abierta a futuros trabajos de investigación. El sistema de acumulación de energía aporta el mayor peso económico de inversión en este tipo de instalaciones. La instalación estudiada aporta indicadores económicos que la hacen rentable, pero se necesitaría que los precios de acumulación de la energía en sistemas eficientes estén comprendidos entre 100-200 €/kWh para que el sistema propuesto en este trabajo resulte atractivo a un potencial propietario de un vehículo eléctrico. ABSTRACT The current energy situation is untenable; it poses a scenario next focused on reaching a sustainable energy future, to allow economic development and social welfare. The environmental current situation is affected directly by the combustion of fossil fuels that in 2013 constituted 81 % of the primary energy used by the human being and they are the principal source human of greenhouse gases. The reports of the IPCC2, they reveal that the climate change has consolidated during the last years and in the conference of the UNO on climate change of Paris that will be celebrated at the end of 2015, there is claimed that the governments sign a universal agreement to limit the emission of greenhouse gases and to prevent that the increase of the global average temperature overcomes them 2°C. On the other hand, inside the cities it is specially worrying, for his direct effect on the human health, the environmental impact produced by the NOx emissions that generate the persons' transport and goods. The sector of the transport was responsible in 2012 of 27,9 % of the final consumption of energy. Once exposed the scenario and present environmental energy, in this thesis, it has analyzed the efficiency of an autonomous photovoltaic system for charging electric vehicles, and the use of the same with other workloads, with the objective to maximize the electrical energy generated and contribute to the use of clean energy that does not produce environmental impact. Since the first step for the development of the thesis did to itself a study of previous works beginning for the first applications of the photovoltaic power in the solar vehicles later to go on to more recent works focused on the power supply to the electrical vehicles. Also this study was done on the methodologies of simulation in the photovoltaic systems and in the shaped one of different components. Later they were chosen, inside the wide existing offer on the market, the components with technical characteristics more adapted for this type of facilities and for the needs that try to cover. From the technical parameters of the components chosen to form the autonomous installation and using models confirmed of different components, a model of simulation has developed in computer of the complete system with which simulations have been done by different manners of demand of electric power, according to the available manners of load in the electrical vehicle for single-phase alternating current of 230 V. Also there have been simulated different sizes of the photovoltaic generator and of the system of accumulation of electric power to be able to determine the influence of these parameters in the energy balances of the system. Using own resources the PhD student has realized a real installation of a photovoltaic system that includes system of accumulation and investing in a building of his property. For the accomplishment of the thesis, The Foundation of Promotion and Industrial Innovation (F2I2) it has facilitated to the PhD student a device that allows to realize the supply of the electrical vehicle in way 2 (this way uses an adapter that incorporates safety devices and communicates with the vehicle allowing to fit the speed of recharges) and that has been necessary for the developed works. The electrical network has been in use as system of support of the photovoltaic installation for allowing it her recharges in the way 2 that more power needs that provided by the photovoltaic installed system. There have been analyzed by means of simulation different rate of load that have been studied experimentally in the realized installation, simultaneously that have done to themselves tests that have reproduced by means of simulation with the same values of solar radiation and temperature in order the model contrasted. The experimental results have been compared by the obtained ones by means of simulation in order to characterize the behavior of the system of accumulation (supplied electric power and tension of exit in the batteries) and of the photovoltaic generator (photovoltaic supplied electric power). Finally, there has been realized an economic study of the autonomous photovoltaic executed and simulated installation. In the same one there has appeared the utilization of own funds (since really it has been carried out) and the utilization of financing, to determine two possible scenes that could be of usefulness to an owner of electrical vehicle. There have been compared the results obtained in both scenes proposed of the economic study of the system, as for the parameters of time of return of the investment, current clear value of the investment and rate hospitalizes of return of the same one. The technical obtained conclusions, they make the utilization of the system viable with the manners of load tested and another type of loads of that they take advantage the electrical generation of the system. The batteries offer better behavior when the photovoltaic contribution is present, but he does not consider to be suitable the connection of loads risen up to a system of accumulation of gel (lead - acid) as the one that has been in use, due to the behavior of this type of batteries before demands of intensity of electrical current raised. On the other hand, the behavior of this type of batteries with low values of intensity of electrical current to 10 To in absence of photovoltaic power, with the aim to use the generation of daily electric power accumulated in the system, yes turns out to be interesting and offers a good behavior of the system of accumulation. The current circumstances of market, which lacks systems of accumulation of lithium with interesting purchase prices, have not allowed to be able to experience this system of accumulation in the autonomous photovoltaic executed installation, neither one could have obtained the favor of any manufacturer for it. Nowadays there are available systems of accumulation in lithium that is not commercialized in Spain and that they would be adapted for the system of accumulation of energy proposed in this study, which makes the doors opened for future works of investigation. The economic obtained conclusions; they make more profitable the use of an autonomous photovoltaic installation with instantaneous consumption, without accumulation of electric power. The future of connection to network on the part of these facilities, when it is regulated, will contribute an economic incentive to make profitable with less time the autonomous photovoltaic facilities, this also leaves the door opened for future works of investigation. The system of accumulation of energy contributes the major economic weight of investment in this type of facilities. The studied installation contributes economic indicators that make her profitable, but it would be necessary that the prices of accumulation of the energy in efficient systems are understood between 100-200 € in order that the system proposed in this work turns out to be attractive to a proprietary potential of an electrical vehicle.

Solar photovoltaic assistance for LHB rail coaches

Awareness for the need of sustainable and eco-friendly mobility has been increasing and various innovations are taking place in this regard. A study was carried out to assess the feasibility of installing solar photovoltaic (PV) modules atop train coaches. Most long-distance trains having LHB coaches do not have self-generating systems, thus making power cars mandatory to supply the required power for lighting loads. Feasibility of supplementing diesel generator sets with power from solar PV modules installed on coach rooftops has been reported in this communication. Not only is there a conservation of fuel, there is also a significant reduction in CO2 emissions. This work has shown that the area available on coach rooftops is more than sufficient to generate the required power, during sunlight hours, for the electrical loads of a non-A/C coach even during winter. All calculations were done keeping a standard route as the reference. Taking the cost of diesel to be Rs 66/litre, it was estimated that there will be annual savings of Rs 5,900,000 corresponding to 90,800 litres diesel per rake per year by implementing this scheme. The installation cost of solar modules would be recovered within 2-3 years. Implementation of this scheme would also amount to an annual reduction of 239 tonnes of CO2 emissions.

The machinist landscape:Land Art Generator Initiative (Competition)

THE MACHINIST LANDSCAPE: AN ENTROPIC GRID OF VARIANCE
‘By drawing a diagram, a ground plan of a house, a street plan to the location of a site, or a topographic map, one draws a “logical two dimensional picture”. A “logical picture” differs from a natural or realistic picture in that it rarely looks like the thing it stands for.’
A Provisional Theory of Non-Sites, Robert Smithson (1968)

Between design and ground there are variances, deviations and gaps. These exist as physical interstices between what is conceptualised and what is realised; and they reveal moments in the design process that resist the reconciliation of people and their environment (McHarg 1963). The Machinist Landscape interrogates the significance of these variances through the contrasting processes of coppice and photovoltaic energy. It builds on the potential of these gaps, and in doing so proposes that these spaces of variance can reveal the complexity of relationships between consumption and remediation, design and nature.
Fresh Kills Park, and in particular the draft master plan (2006), offers a framework to explore this artificial construct. Central to the Machinist Landscape is the analysis of the landfill gas collection system, planned on a notional 200ft grid. Variations are revealed between this diagrammatic grid measure and that which has been constructed on the site. These variances between the abstract and the real offer the Machinist Landscape a powerful space of enquiry. Are these gaps a result of unexpected conditions below ground, topographic nuances or natural phenomena? Does this space of difference, between what is planned and what is constructed, have the potential to redefine the dynamic processes and relations with the land?
The Machinist Landscape is structured through this space of variance with an ‘entropic grid’, the under-storey of which hosts a carefully managed system of short-rotation coppice (SRC). The coppice, a medieval practice related to energy, product, and space, operates on theoretical and programmatic levels. It is planted along a structure of linear bunds, stabilized through coppice pole retaining structures and enriched with nutrients from coppice produced bio-char. Above the coppice is built an upper-storey of photovoltaic (PV); its structures fabricated from the coppiced timber and the PV produced with graphene from coppice charcoal processes.

Performance analysis of a 7-kW crystalline silicon generator after 17 years of operation in Madrid

The degradation observed on a 7-kWp Si-x photovoltaic array after 17 years of exposure on the roof of the Solar Energy Institute of the Polytechnic University of Madrid is presented. The mean peak power degradation has been 9% over this time, or an equivalent to 0.53% per year, whereas peak power standard deviation has remained constant. The main visual defects are backsheet delamination at the polyester/polyvinyl fluoride outer interface and cracks in the terminal boxes and at the joint between the frame and the laminate. Insulation resistance complies well with the requirements of the International Electrotechnical Commission 61215 tests.

A swarm intelligence approach based on coupled oscillators: an application in demand side management with photovoltaic distributed generation

Esta Tesis aborda los problemas de eficiencia de las redes eléctrica desde el punto de vista del consumo. En particular, dicha eficiencia es mejorada mediante el suavizado de la curva de consumo agregado. Este objetivo de suavizado de consumo implica dos grandes mejoras en el uso de las redes eléctricas: i) a corto plazo, un mejor uso de la infraestructura existente y ii) a largo plazo, la reducción de la infraestructura necesaria para suplir las mismas necesidades energéticas. Además, esta Tesis se enfrenta a un nuevo paradigma energético, donde la presencia de generación distribuida está muy extendida en las redes eléctricas, en particular, la generación fotovoltaica (FV). Este tipo de fuente energética afecta al funcionamiento de la red, incrementando su variabilidad. Esto implica que altas tasas de penetración de electricidad de origen fotovoltaico es perjudicial para la estabilidad de la red eléctrica. Esta Tesis trata de suavizar la curva de consumo agregado considerando esta fuente energética. Por lo tanto, no sólo se mejora la eficiencia de la red eléctrica, sino que también puede ser aumentada la penetración de electricidad de origen fotovoltaico en la red. Esta propuesta conlleva grandes beneficios en los campos económicos, social y ambiental. Las acciones que influyen en el modo en que los consumidores hacen uso de la electricidad con el objetivo producir un ahorro energético o un aumento de eficiencia son llamadas Gestión de la Demanda Eléctrica (GDE). Esta Tesis propone dos algoritmos de GDE diferentes para cumplir con el objetivo de suavizado de la curva de consumo agregado. La diferencia entre ambos algoritmos de GDE reside en el marco en el cual estos tienen lugar: el marco local y el marco de red. Dependiendo de este marco de GDE, el objetivo energético y la forma en la que se alcanza este objetivo son diferentes. En el marco local, el algoritmo de GDE sólo usa información local. Este no tiene en cuenta a otros consumidores o a la curva de consumo agregado de la red eléctrica. Aunque esta afirmación pueda diferir de la definición general de GDE, esta vuelve a tomar sentido en instalaciones locales equipadas con Recursos Energéticos Distribuidos (REDs). En este caso, la GDE está enfocada en la maximización del uso de la energía local, reduciéndose la dependencia con la red. El algoritmo de GDE propuesto mejora significativamente el auto-consumo del generador FV local. Experimentos simulados y reales muestran que el auto-consumo es una importante estrategia de gestión energética, reduciendo el transporte de electricidad y alentando al usuario a controlar su comportamiento energético. Sin embargo, a pesar de todas las ventajas del aumento de auto-consumo, éstas no contribuyen al suavizado del consumo agregado. Se han estudiado los efectos de las instalaciones locales en la red eléctrica cuando el algoritmo de GDE está enfocado en el aumento del auto-consumo. Este enfoque puede tener efectos no deseados, incrementando la variabilidad en el consumo agregado en vez de reducirlo. Este efecto se produce porque el algoritmo de GDE sólo considera variables locales en el marco local. Los resultados sugieren que se requiere una coordinación entre las instalaciones. A través de esta coordinación, el consumo debe ser modificado teniendo en cuenta otros elementos de la red y buscando el suavizado del consumo agregado. En el marco de la red, el algoritmo de GDE tiene en cuenta tanto información local como de la red eléctrica. En esta Tesis se ha desarrollado un algoritmo autoorganizado para controlar el consumo de la red eléctrica de manera distribuida. El objetivo de este algoritmo es el suavizado del consumo agregado, como en las implementaciones clásicas de GDE. El enfoque distribuido significa que la GDE se realiza desde el lado de los consumidores sin seguir órdenes directas emitidas por una entidad central. Por lo tanto, esta Tesis propone una estructura de gestión paralela en lugar de una jerárquica como en las redes eléctricas clásicas. Esto implica que se requiere un mecanismo de coordinación entre instalaciones. Esta Tesis pretende minimizar la cantidad de información necesaria para esta coordinación. Para lograr este objetivo, se han utilizado dos técnicas de coordinación colectiva: osciladores acoplados e inteligencia de enjambre. La combinación de estas técnicas para llevar a cabo la coordinación de un sistema con las características de la red eléctrica es en sí mismo un enfoque novedoso. Por lo tanto, este objetivo de coordinación no es sólo una contribución en el campo de la gestión energética, sino también en el campo de los sistemas colectivos. Los resultados muestran que el algoritmo de GDE propuesto reduce la diferencia entre máximos y mínimos de la red eléctrica en proporción a la cantidad de energía controlada por el algoritmo. Por lo tanto, conforme mayor es la cantidad de energía controlada por el algoritmo, mayor es la mejora de eficiencia en la red eléctrica. Además de las ventajas resultantes del suavizado del consumo agregado, otras ventajas surgen de la solución distribuida seguida en esta Tesis. Estas ventajas se resumen en las siguientes características del algoritmo de GDE propuesto: • Robustez: en un sistema centralizado, un fallo o rotura del nodo central provoca un mal funcionamiento de todo el sistema. La gestión de una red desde un punto de vista distribuido implica que no existe un nodo de control central. Un fallo en cualquier instalación no afecta el funcionamiento global de la red. • Privacidad de datos: el uso de una topología distribuida causa de que no hay un nodo central con información sensible de todos los consumidores. Esta Tesis va más allá y el algoritmo propuesto de GDE no utiliza información específica acerca de los comportamientos de los consumidores, siendo la coordinación entre las instalaciones completamente anónimos. • Escalabilidad: el algoritmo propuesto de GDE opera con cualquier número de instalaciones. Esto implica que se permite la incorporación de nuevas instalaciones sin afectar a su funcionamiento. • Bajo coste: el algoritmo de GDE propuesto se adapta a las redes actuales sin requisitos topológicos. Además, todas las instalaciones calculan su propia gestión con un bajo requerimiento computacional. Por lo tanto, no se requiere un nodo central con un alto poder de cómputo. • Rápido despliegue: las características de escalabilidad y bajo coste de los algoritmos de GDE propuestos permiten una implementación rápida. No se requiere una planificación compleja para el despliegue de este sistema. ABSTRACT This Thesis addresses the efficiency problems of the electrical grids from the consumption point of view. In particular, such efficiency is improved by means of the aggregated consumption smoothing. This objective of consumption smoothing entails two major improvements in the use of electrical grids: i) in the short term, a better use of the existing infrastructure and ii) in long term, the reduction of the required infrastructure to supply the same energy needs. In addition, this Thesis faces a new energy paradigm, where the presence of distributed generation is widespread over the electrical grids, in particular, the Photovoltaic (PV) generation. This kind of energy source affects to the operation of the grid by increasing its variability. This implies that a high penetration rate of photovoltaic electricity is pernicious for the electrical grid stability. This Thesis seeks to smooth the aggregated consumption considering this energy source. Therefore, not only the efficiency of the electrical grid is improved, but also the penetration of photovoltaic electricity into the grid can be increased. This proposal brings great benefits in the economic, social and environmental fields. The actions that influence the way that consumers use electricity in order to achieve energy savings or higher efficiency in energy use are called Demand-Side Management (DSM). This Thesis proposes two different DSM algorithms to meet the aggregated consumption smoothing objective. The difference between both DSM algorithms lie in the framework in which they take place: the local framework and the grid framework. Depending on the DSM framework, the energy goal and the procedure to reach this goal are different. In the local framework, the DSM algorithm only uses local information. It does not take into account other consumers or the aggregated consumption of the electrical grid. Although this statement may differ from the general definition of DSM, it makes sense in local facilities equipped with Distributed Energy Resources (DERs). In this case, the DSM is focused on the maximization of the local energy use, reducing the grid dependence. The proposed DSM algorithm significantly improves the self-consumption of the local PV generator. Simulated and real experiments show that self-consumption serves as an important energy management strategy, reducing the electricity transport and encouraging the user to control his energy behavior. However, despite all the advantages of the self-consumption increase, they do not contribute to the smooth of the aggregated consumption. The effects of the local facilities on the electrical grid are studied when the DSM algorithm is focused on self-consumption maximization. This approach may have undesirable effects, increasing the variability in the aggregated consumption instead of reducing it. This effect occurs because the algorithm only considers local variables in the local framework. The results suggest that coordination between these facilities is required. Through this coordination, the consumption should be modified by taking into account other elements of the grid and seeking for an aggregated consumption smoothing. In the grid framework, the DSM algorithm takes into account both local and grid information. This Thesis develops a self-organized algorithm to manage the consumption of an electrical grid in a distributed way. The goal of this algorithm is the aggregated consumption smoothing, as the classical DSM implementations. The distributed approach means that the DSM is performed from the consumers side without following direct commands issued by a central entity. Therefore, this Thesis proposes a parallel management structure rather than a hierarchical one as in the classical electrical grids. This implies that a coordination mechanism between facilities is required. This Thesis seeks for minimizing the amount of information necessary for this coordination. To achieve this objective, two collective coordination techniques have been used: coupled oscillators and swarm intelligence. The combination of these techniques to perform the coordination of a system with the characteristics of the electric grid is itself a novel approach. Therefore, this coordination objective is not only a contribution in the energy management field, but in the collective systems too. Results show that the proposed DSM algorithm reduces the difference between the maximums and minimums of the electrical grid proportionally to the amount of energy controlled by the system. Thus, the greater the amount of energy controlled by the algorithm, the greater the improvement of the efficiency of the electrical grid. In addition to the advantages resulting from the smoothing of the aggregated consumption, other advantages arise from the distributed approach followed in this Thesis. These advantages are summarized in the following features of the proposed DSM algorithm: • Robustness: in a centralized system, a failure or breakage of the central node causes a malfunction of the whole system. The management of a grid from a distributed point of view implies that there is not a central control node. A failure in any facility does not affect the overall operation of the grid. • Data privacy: the use of a distributed topology causes that there is not a central node with sensitive information of all consumers. This Thesis goes a step further and the proposed DSM algorithm does not use specific information about the consumer behaviors, being the coordination between facilities completely anonymous. • Scalability: the proposed DSM algorithm operates with any number of facilities. This implies that it allows the incorporation of new facilities without affecting its operation. • Low cost: the proposed DSM algorithm adapts to the current grids without any topological requirements. In addition, every facility calculates its own management with low computational requirements. Thus, a central computational node with a high computational power is not required. • Quick deployment: the scalability and low cost features of the proposed DSM algorithms allow a quick deployment. A complex schedule of the deployment of this system is not required.

WATER USE AND SYSTEM RELIABILITY UNDER DIESELGENERATOR AND SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWERED PUMPING SYSTEMS: A CASE STUDY OF SOLLA TOGO

Access to improved potable water sources is recognized as one of the key factors in improving health and alleviating global poverty. In recently years, substantial investments have been made internationally in potable water infrastructure projects, allowing 2.3 billion people to gain access to potable water from 1990-2012. One such project was planned and installed in Solla, Togo, a rural village in the northern part of the country, from 2010-2012. Ethnographic studies revealed that, while the community has access to potable water, an estimated 45% of the village’s 1500 residents still rely on unprotected sources for drinking and cooking. Additionally, inequality in system use based on income level was revealed, with the higher income groups accessing the system more regularly than lower income groups. Cost, as well as the availability of cheaper sources, was identified as the main deterrent from using the new water distribution system. A new water-pricing scheme is investigated here with the intention of making the system accessible to a greater percentage of the population. Since 2012, a village-level water committee has been responsible for operations and maintenance (O&M), fulfilling the community management model that is recommended by many development theorists in order to create sustainable projects. The water committee received post-construction support, mostly in the form of technical support during system breakdowns, from the Togolese Ministry of Water and Sanitation (MWSVH). While this support has been valuable in maintaining a functional water supply system in Solla, the water committee still has managerial challenges, particularly with billing and fee collection. As a result, the water committee has only received 2% - 25% of the fees owed at each private connection and public tap stand, making their finances vulnerable when future repairs and capital replacements are necessary. A new management structure is proposed by the MWSVH that will pay utilities workers a wage and will hire an accountant in order to improve the local management and increase revenue. This proposal is analyzed under the new water pricing schemes that are presented. Initially, the rural water supply system was powered by a diesel-generator, but in 2013, a solar photo-voltaic power supply was installed. The new system proved a fiscal improvement for the village water committee, since it drastically reduced their annual O&M costs. However, the new system pumps a smaller volume of water on a daily basis and did not meet the community’s water needs during the dry season of 2014. A hydraulic network model was developed to investigate the system’s reliability under diesel-generator (DGPS) and solar photovoltaic (PVPS) power supplies. Additionally, a new system layout is proposed for the PVPS that allows pumping directly into the distribution line, circumventing the high head associated with pumping solely to the storage tank. It was determined that this new layout would allow for a greater volume of water to be provided to the demand points over the course of a day, meeting a greater fraction of the demand than with the current layout.