Switchable surfactant-assisted carbon nanotube coatings: innovation through pH shift

The inner surface of fused-silica capillaries has been coated with a dense/homogeneous coating of commercial multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) using a stable ink as deposit precursor. Solubilization of the MWCNTs was achieved in water/ethanol/dimethylformamide by the action of a surfactant, which can switch between a neutral or an ionic form depending on the pH of the medium, which thus becomes the driving force for the entire deposition process. Careful control of the experimental conditions has allowed us to selectively deposit CNTs on the inner surface of insulating silica capillaries by a simple, reproducible, and easily adaptable method.

Preparation of pH-sensitive polymer by thermal initiation polymerization and its application in fluorescence immunoassay

A fluorescence immunoassay for human IgG (Ag) was developed using a pH-sensitive polymer prepared by thermal initiation or redox initiation polymerization as a carrier. In the competitive immunoassay, appropriate quantity of Ag was immobilized on the polymer and the standard Ag (or sample) solution, and a constant amount of fluorescein isothiocyanate labeled goat anti-human IgG antibody (Ab-FITC) was added. Immobilized Ag and the standard (or sample) Ag competed for binding to the Ab-FITC in 37 C in homogeneous format. After changing the pH to separate the polymer-immune complex precipitate, it was re-dissolved and determined by fluorescence method. The results showed that the immobilization efficiency, immunological reaction activities of immobilized Au and phase transition pH range were improved as Ag was immobilized by thermal initiation instead of redox initiation polymerization. Under optimum conditions, the calibration graphs for the Ag in both methods, thermal initiation and redox initiation, were linear over the concentration range of 0.0-1000 ng mL(-1), with detection limits 8 (thermal initiation) and 12 ng mL(1) (redox initiation), respectively. Moreover, some pH-sensitive polymer prepared only in organic solvent or under high temperature could also be used as an immunoreaction carrier by thermal initiation polymerization. Thermal initiation polymerization was a better immobilization mode. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Electrospun pH-sensitive core–shell polymer nanocomposites fabricated using a tri-axial process

A modified tri-axial electrospinning process was developed for the generation of a new type of pH-sensitive polymer/lipid nanocomposite. The systems produced are able to promote both dissolution and permeation of a model poorly water-soluble drug. First, we show that it is possible to run a tri-axial process with only one of the three fluids being electrospinnable. Using an electrospinnable middle fluid of Eudragit S100 (ES100) with pure ethanol as the outer solvent and an unspinnable lecithin-diclofenac sodium (PL–DS) core solution, nanofibers with linear morphology and clear core/shell structures can be fabricated continuously and smoothly. X-ray diffraction proved that these nanofibers are structural nanocomposites with the drug present in an amorphous state. In vitro dissolution tests demonstrated that the formulations could preclude release in acidic conditions, and that the drug was released from the fibers in two successive steps at neutral pH. The first step is the dissolution of the shell ES100 and the conversion of the core PL–DS into sub-micron sized particles. This frees some DS into solution, and later the remaining DS is gradually released from the PL–DS particles through diffusion. Ex vivo permeation results showed that the composite nanofibers give a more than twofold uplift in the amount of DS passing through the colonic membrane as compared to pure DS; 74% of the transmitted drug was in the form of PL–DS particles. The new tri-axial electrospinning process developed in this work provides a platform to fabricate structural nanomaterials, and the core–shell polymer-PL nanocomposites we have produced have significant potential applications for oral colon-targeted drug delivery.

Electrochemical studies based on local interfacial ph changes of gold nanoparticles immobilized on polystyrene brushes

The electrochemical behavior of polystyrene modified with gold nanoparticle (Au NPs) was investigated in terms of pH-responsive polymer brush. A pH-responsive of modified polymer brush from tethered polystyrene was prepared and used for selective gating transport of anions andcations across the thin-film. An ITO-coated glass electrode was used as substrate and applied to study the switchable permeability of the polymer brush triggered by changes in pH of the aqueous environment. The pH-sensitive behavior of the polymer brush interface has been demonstrated by means of cyclic voltammetry (CV) and Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR). CV experiments showed at ph values of 4 and 8 induces swelling and shrinking of the grafted polymer brushes, respectively, and this behavior is fast and reversible. LSPR measurements showed a blue shift of 33 nm in the surface resonance band changes by local pH. The paper brings an easy methodology to fabrication a variety of nanosensors based on the polymer brushes-nanoparticle assemblies. © 2013 by ESG.

Electrochemical studies based on local interfacial ph changes of gold nanoparticles immobilized on polystyrene brushes

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Thin functional conducting polymer films

In the present study, thin functional conducting polyaniline (PANI) films, either doped or undoped, patterned or unpatterned, were prepared by different approaches. The properties of the obtained PANI films were investigated in detail by a combination of electrochemistry with several other techniques, such as SPR, QCM, SPFS, diffraction, etc. The sensing applications (especially biosensing applications) of the prepared PANI films were explored. Firstly, the pure PANI films were prepared by the electropolymerisation method and their doping/dedoping properties in acidic conditions were investigated in detail by a combination of electrochemistry with SPR and QCM. Dielectric constants of PANI at different oxidation states were obtained quantitatively. The results obtained here laid a good foundation for the following investigations of PANI films in neutral pH conditions. Next, PANI multilayer films doped by a variety of materials were prepared by the layer-by-layer method in order to explore their biosensing applications, because of the loss of redox activity of pure PANI in neutral pH conditions. The dopants used include not only the traditionally used linear polyelectrolytes, but also, for the first tim, some other novel materials, like modified gold nanoparticles or modified carbon nanotubes. Our results showed that all the used dopants could form stable multilayer films with PANI. All the obtained PANI multilayer films showed good redox activity in a neutral pH environment, which makes them feasible for bioassays. We found that all the prepared PANI multilayer films can electrocatalyze the oxidation of NADH in neutral conditions at a low potential, although their catalytic efficiencies are different. Among them, PANI/carbon nanotube system showed the highest catalytic efficiency toward the oxidation of NADH, which makes it a good candidate as a NADH sensor. Besides, because some of the prepared PANI multilayer systems were end-terminated with –COOH groups (like PANI/Au nanoparticles system), which can be utilized to easily link biomolecules for biosensing applications. Here, we demonstrated, for the first time, to use the prepared PANI multilayer films for the DNA hybridisation detection. The detection event was monitored either by direct electrochemical method, or by enzyme-amplified electrochemical method, or by surface plasmon enhanced fluorescence spectroscopic method. All the methods can effectively differentiate non-complementary DNA from the complementary ones, even at the single-base mismatch level. It should also be noted that, our success in fabricating PANI multilayer films with modified Au nanoparticles or carbon nanotubes also offered another novel method for incorporating such novel materials into (conducting) polymers. Because of the unique electrochemical and optical properties of each component of the obtained PANI multilayer films, they should also find potential applications in many other fields such as microelectronics, or for electrochromic and photovoltaic devices. Finally, patterned PANI films were fabricated by the combination of several patterning techniques, such as the combination of electrocopolymerization with micromolding in capillaries (EP-MIMIC), the combination of microcontact printing with the layer-by-layer technique (µCP-LBL), and the polystyrene (PS) template induced electropolymerisation method. Using the obtained stripe-shaped PANI/PSS film, a redox-switchable polymer grating based on the surface-plasmon-enhanced mode was constructed and its application in the field of biosensing was explored. It was found that the diffraction efficiency (DE) of the grating was very sensitive to the applied potential (i.e. redox state of the film) as well as the pH environment of the dielectric medium. Moreover, the DE could also be effectively tuned by an electrocatalytic event, such as the electrocatalytic oxidation of NADH by the grating film. By using PS colloidal crystal assemblies as templates, well-ordered 3D interconnected macroporous PANI arrays (PANI inverse opals) were fabricated via electropolymerisation method. The quality of the obtained inverse opals was much higher than those reported by chemical synthesis method. By electrochemical method, the structures of the prepared inverse opals can be easily controlled. To explore the possible biosensing applications of PANI inverse opals, efforts were also done toward the fabrication of PANI composite inverse opals. By selecting proper dopants, high quality inverse opals of PANI composites were fabricated for the first time. And the obtained opaline films remained redox-active in neutral pH conditions, pointing to their possible applications for electrobioassays.

Switching radical stability by pH-induced orbital conversion

In most radicals the singly occupied molecular orbital (SOMO) is the highest-energy occupied molecular orbital (HOMO); however, in a small number of reported compounds this is not the case. In the present work we expand significantly the scope of this phenomenon, known as SOMO-HOMO energy-level conversion, by showing that it occurs in virtually any distonic radical anion that contains a sufficiently stabilized radical (aminoxyl, peroxyl, aminyl) non-pi-conjugated with a negative charge (carboxylate, phosphate, sulfate). Moreover, regular orbital order is restored on protonation of the anionic fragment, and hence the orbital configuration can be switched by pH. Most importantly, our theoretical and experimental results reveal a dramatically higher radical stability and proton acidity of such distonic radical anions. Changing radical stability by 3-4 orders of magnitude using pH-induced orbital conversion opens a variety of attractive industrial applications, including pH-switchable nitroxide-mediated polymerization, and it might be exploited in nature.

Gold Nanoparticle-based Colorimetric Sensor for pH Sensing

We present a newly designed colormetric sensor sensitive to pH value based on a gold nanocomposite composed of gold nanoparticles and pH-sensitive polymer{dodecylthioether end functionalized poly[2-(diethlamino) ethyl methacrylate], poly(DEAEMA)-DDT}. We have shown that this design can produce stable GNP precipitate under weakly basic condition(pH=7.5) and this precipitate can be dispersed in acidic solution(pH=4.0), due to the 2-(diethylamino) ethyl methacrylate protonated by H+.

Caractérisation de la pharmacocinétique de formulations sensibles au pH et de formulations destinées au traitement des intoxications médicamenteuses

La préparation de formulations à libération contrôlée est le domaine des sciences pharmaceutiques qui vise à modifier l’environnement immédiat des principes actifs pour en améliorer l’efficacité et l’innocuité. Cet objectif peut être atteint en modifiant la cinétique de circulation dans le sang ou la distribution dans l’organisme. Le but de ce projet de recherche était d’étudier le profil pharmacocinétique (PK) de différentes formulations liposomales. L’analyse PK, généralement employée pour représenter et prédire les concentrations plasmatiques des médicaments et de leurs métabolites, a été utilisée ici pour caractériser in vivo des formulations sensibles au pH servant à modifier la distribution intracellulaire de principes actifs ainsi que des liposomes destinés au traitement des intoxications médicamenteuses. Dans un premier temps, la PK d’un copolymère sensible au pH, à base de N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) et d’acide méthacrylique (MAA) a été étudiée. Ce dernier, le p(NIPAM-co-MAA) est utilisé dans notre laboratoire pour la fabrication de liposomes sensibles au pH. L’étude de PK conduite sur les profils de concentrations sanguines de différents polymères a défini les caractéristiques influençant la circulation des macromolécules dans l’organisme. La taille des molécules, leur point de trouble ainsi que la présence d’un segment hydrophobe à l’extrémité des chaînes se sont avérés déterminants. Le seuil de filtration glomérulaire du polymère a été évalué à 32 000 g/mol. Finalement, l’analyse PK a permis de s’assurer que les complexes formés par la fixation du polymère à la surface des liposomes restaient stables dans le sang, après injection par voie intraveineuse. Ces données ont établi qu’il était possible de synthétiser un polymère pouvant être adéquatement éliminé par filtration rénale et que les liposomes sensibles au pH préparés avec celui-ci demeuraient intacts dans l’organisme. En second lieu, l’analyse PK a été utilisée dans le développement de liposomes possédant un gradient de pH transmembranaire pour le traitement des intoxications médicamenteuses. Une formulation a été développée et optimisée in vitro pour capturer un médicament modèle, le diltiazem (DTZ). La formulation liposomale s’est avérée 40 fois plus performante que les émulsions lipidiques utilisées en clinique. L’analyse PK des liposomes a permis de confirmer la stabilité de la formulation in vivo et d’analyser l’influence des liposomes sur la circulation plasmatique du DTZ et de son principal métabolite, le desacétyldiltiazem (DAD). Il a été démontré que les liposomes étaient capables de capturer et de séquestrer le principe actif dans la circulation sanguine lorsque celui-ci était administré, par la voie intraveineuse. L’injection des liposomes 2 minutes avant l’administration du DTZ augmentait significativement l’aire sous la courbe du DTZ et du DAD tout en diminuant leur clairance plasmatique et leur volume de distribution. L’effet de ces modifications PK sur l’activité pharmacologique du médicament a ensuite été évalué. Les liposomes ont diminué l’effet hypotenseur du principe actif administré en bolus ou en perfusion sur une période d’une heure. Au cours de ces travaux, l’analyse PK a servi à établir la preuve de concept que des liposomes possédant un gradient de pH transmembranaire pouvaient modifier la PK d’un médicament cardiovasculaire et en diminuer l’activité pharmacologique. Ces résultats serviront de base pour le développement de la formulation destinée au traitement des intoxications médicamenteuses. Ce travail souligne la pertinence d’utiliser l’analyse PK dans la mise au point de vecteurs pharmaceutiques destinés à des applications variées. À ce stade de développement, l’aspect prédictif de l’analyse n’a pas été exploité, mais le côté descriptif a permis de comparer adéquatement diverses formulations et de tirer des conclusions pertinentes quant à leur devenir dans l’organisme.

Production of pH-responsive microparticles by spray drying: investigation of experimental parameter effects on morphological and release properties

During spray drying, emphasis is placed on process optimisation to generate favourable particle morphological and flow properties. The effect of the initial feed solution composition on the drug release from the prepared microparticles is rarely considered. We investigated the effects of solvent composition, feed solution concentration and drug-loading on sodium salicylate, hydrocortisone and triamcinolone release from spray dried Eudragit L100 microparticles. Eudragit L100 is a pH-responsive polymer whose dissolution threshold is pH 6 so dissolution testing of the prepared microparticles at pH 5 and 1.2 illustrated non-polymer controlled burst release. Increasing the water content of the initial ethanolic feed solution significantly reduced hydrocortisone burst release at pH 5, as did reducing the feed solution concentration. These findings caution that changes in feed solution concentration or solvent composition not only affect particles’ morphological characteristics but can also negatively alter their drug release properties. This work also illustrate that drug-free microparticles can have different morphological properties to drug-loaded microparticles. Therefore, process optimisation needs to be carried out using drug-loaded systems. Depending on the physicochemical properties of the encapsulated API, drug-loading can affect the polymer solubility in the initial feed solution with consequent impact on microparticles morphological and release properties.

Using pH abnormalities in diseased skin to trigger and target topical therapy

Abstract Purpose: The pH discrepancy between healthy and atopic dermatitis skin was identified as a site specific trigger for delivering hydrocortisone from microcapsules. Methods: Using Eudragit L100, a pH-responsive polymer which dissolves at pH 6, hydrocortisone-loaded microparticles were produced by oil-in-oil microencapsulation or spray drying. Release and permeation of hydrocortisone from microparticles alone or in gels was assessed and preliminary stability data was determined. Results: Drug release from microparticles was pH-dependent though the particles produced by spray drying also gave significant non-pH dependent burst release, resulting from their porous nature or from drug enrichment on the surface of these particles. This pH-responsive release was maintained upon incorporation of the oil-in-oil microparticles into Carbopol- and HPMC-based gel formulations. In-vitro studies showed 4 to 5-fold higher drug permeation through porcine skin from the gels at pH 7 compared to pH 5. Conclusions: Permeation studies showed that the oil-in-oil generated particles deliver essentially no drug at normal (intact) skin pH (5.0 – 5.5) but that delivery can be triggered and targeted to atopic dermatitis skin where the pH is elevated. The incorporation of these microparticles into Carbopol- and HPMC-based aqueous gel formulations demonstrated good stability and pH-responsive permeation into porcine skin.

Double-stimulus sensitive (temperature and pH) self-assemblable polymers

The rheological properties of block co-polymers in water solution at different pH have been investigated. The block copolymers are based on different architectures containing poly(ethylene glycol), poly(propylene glycol) and different blocks of polymer that change their hydrophobic/hydrophilic behavior as a function of pH. The polymer chains of the starting material were extended at their functional ends with the pH-sensitive units using ATRP; this mechanism of controlled radical polymerization was chosen because of the need to minimize polydispersity and avoid transfer reactions possibly leading to homopolymeric inpurities. The starting material were modified in order to use them as macroinitiator for ATRP. The kinetic of each ATRP reaction has been investigated, in order to be able to synthesize polymers with different degree of polymerization, stopping the reaction when the desired polymers chain length has been reached. We will use polymer chains with different basicity and degree of polymerization to link any possible effect of their presence to the conditions under which they become hydrophobic. It has been shown that the rate of polymerization changes changing the type of macroinitiator and the type of monomer synthesized. The slowest rate of polymerization is the one with the most hindered monomer synthesized using the macroinitiator with the highest molecular weight. The water solubility of the synthesized polymers changes depending on the pH of the solution and on the structure of the polymers. It has been shown using 1H-NMR that some of the synthesized polymers are capable to self-aggregation in water solution. The self-aggregation and the type of aggregation is influenced from the structure of the polymer and from the pH of the solution. Changing the structure of the polymers and the pH it is possible to obtain different type of aggregates in solution. This aggregates differ for the volume occupied from them, and for their hardness. Rheological measurements have been demonstrated that the synthesized polymers are capable to form gel phases. The gelation temperature changes changing the structure of the aggregates in solution and it is possible to correlate the changing in the gelation temperature with the changing in the structure of the polymer.

The poly dA helix: a new structural motif for high performance DNA-based molecular switches

We report a pH-dependent conformational transition in short, defined homopolymeric deoxyadenosines (dA(15)) from a single helical structure with stacked nucleobases at neutral pH to a double-helical, parallel-stranded duplex held together by AH-HA base pairs at acidic pH. Using native PAGE, 2D NMR, circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopy, we have characterized the two different pH dependent forms of dA(15). The pH-triggered transition between the two defined helical forms of dA(15) is characterized by CD and fluorescence. The kinetics of this conformational switch is found to occur on a millisecond time scale. This robust, highly reversible, pH-induced transition between the two well-defined structured states of dA(15)represents a new molecular building block for the construction of quick-response, pH-switchable architectures in structural DNA nanotechnology.

Systèmes vésiculaires colloïdaux pour la vectorisation de la 1-β-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine

La 1-β-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine (ara-C) demeure l’agent anticancéreux principalement utilisé dans le traitement de la leucémie myéloblastique aiguë (LMA), malgré sa dégradation et son élimination rapide après une administration parentérale. Son encapsulation dans des vecteurs pharmaceutiques, majoritairement des liposomes, a permis de surmonter ces inconvénients. L’objectif général de ce projet de doctorat était de développer deux systèmes à libération prolongée, à base de phospholipides, de cholestérol et de poly(éthylène glycol) (PEG) afin d’encapsuler l’ara-C et ultimement, d’améliorer son efficacité dans le traitement de la LMA. Des Sphérulites® (vésicules multilamellaires d’un type particulier) ont d’abord été étudiées pour leur forte capacité d’encapsulation, due à leur mode de préparation. Par la suite, une formulation liposomale capable, d’une part de cibler spécifiquement les cellules leucémiques et, d’autre part, de promouvoir la libération intracellulaire de l’ara-C grâce à sa sensibilité au pH, a été mise au point. Les deux formulations se devaient d’avoir un faible diamètre, une stabilité en présence de fluides biologiques et des temps de circulation prolongés chez l’animal. Une préparation de Sphérulites®, composée de Phospholipon 90G, de Solutol HS15 et de cholestérol, a permis d’obtenir des vésicules de 300 nm de diamètre. Un dérivé lipidique de PEG a pu être fixé à leur surface, sans modifier la disposition concentrique des lamelles, ni changer leur stabilité. Les Sphérulites® PEGylées ont été chargées d’ara-C et injectées chez le rat par la voie intraveineuse. Elles ont démontré des temps de circulation significativement prolongés comparativement aux Sphérulites® sans PEG. Cependant, l’ara-C s’est retrouvée éliminée de la circulation sanguine très rapidement, révélant une libération précoce du principe actif à partir de ces vésicules. Les liposomes sensibles au pH (~150 nm) ont été obtenus suite à l’insertion d’un copolymère à base de dioctadécyle, de N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) et d’acide méthacrylique. L’anticorps anti-CD33, soit complet soit son fragment Fab’, a été fixé à la surface des liposomes afin de cibler les cellules leucémiques. Les essais in vitro ont démontré la spécificité de la formulation pour différentes cellules leucémiques (CD33+), sa stabilité en présence de protéines plasmatiques et la libération intracellulaire d’un marqueur fluorescent et de l’ara-C. Enfin, des études menées chez la souris saine et immunodéprimée inoculée de cellules HL60 ont montré que la formulation exposant le fragment Fab’ possédait un profil pharmacocinétique et une biodistribution semblables à ceux des liposomes contrôles non-ciblés. L’encapsulation de l’ara-C a permis d’améliorer grandement ses temps de circulation après une administration intraveineuse. Cependant, bien que les immunoliposomes ont permis de prolonger la survie des souris leucémiques comparativement à l’ara-C libre, l’addition du polymère sensible au pH n’a pas permis d’apporter de réel avantage à la formulation lorsque administrée in vivo. Les résultats obtenus dans ce travail de thèse ont, dans un premier temps, mis en évidence que les Sphérulites® pourraient s’avérer utiles dans la vectorisation d’agents anticancéreux si leur capacité à retenir le principe actif in vivo était améliorée. Dans un second temps, les données présentées avec les immunoliposomes suggèrent qu’ils pourraient apporter un bénéfice notable dans le traitement de la LMA.

Plasmid DNA partitioning and separation using poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(acrylate)/salt aqueous two-phase systems

Phase diagrams of poly(ethylene glycol)/polyacrylate/Na2SO4 systems have been investigated with respect to polymer size and pH. Plasmid DNA from Escherichia coil can depending on pH and polymer molecular weight be directed to a poly(ethylene glycol) or to a polyacrylate-rich phase in an aqueous two-phase system formed by these polymers. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and E. coil homogenate proteins can be directed opposite to the plasmid partitioning in these systems. Two bioseparation processes have been developed where in the final step the pDNA is partitioned to a salt-rich phase giving a total process yield of 60-70%. In one of them the pDNA is partitioned between the polyacrylate and PEG-phases in order to remove proteins. In a more simplified process the plasmid is partitioned to a PEG-phase and back-extracted into a Na2SO4-rich phase. The novel polyacrylate/PEG system allows a strong change of the partitioning between the phases with relatively small changes in composition or pH. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.