Characterisation of nickel(II) extraction by 2-hydroxy-5-nonylacetophenone oxime (LIX 84) in a micellar phase

The properties of the nickel(II)/2-hydroxy-5-nonylacetophenone oxime (HNAPO), an active ingredient in LIX 84, extraction system were characterised in a micellar system. The extinction coefficient, λ_max of HNAPO (316 nm) and the Ni²⁺ complex (387 nm) in a neutral micellar system, poly dispersed octa-ethyleneglycol mono-n-dodecyl ether (G₁₂A₈) were determined as 3100 and 3500 M⁻¹ cm⁻¹, respectively. HNAPO was found to have a neutral micellar phase and bulk aqueous phase pK_a of 11.5 and 12.5, respectively. The extraction equilibrium constant, K_ex, was determined to be 10^−8.0, and the deviation from theory observed at high pH can be accounted for by consideration of the competition for nickel(II) ions by hydroxide ions and HNAPO. A micellar phase of octa-ethyleneglycol mono-n-dodecyl ether (C₁₂E₈) was determined to be an appropriate model of the free oil/water interface from the solubilised location of HNAPO. Utilising the interfacial probe, 4-heptadecyl-7-hydroxy coumarin (HHC) allowed the determination of the electrostatic surface potential of mixed micelles of G₁₂A₈ and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) or dodecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (DTAC). The electrostatic surface potential was a linear function of the number of additional surfactant monomers within the G₁₂A₈ micelle, for the concentration range studied. For G₁₂A₈/DTAC mixed micelles, the surface potential was given by +1.1 mV per DTAC molecule per micelle, and for G₁₂A₈/SDS mixed micelles the relationship was −1.4 mV per SDS molecule per micelle.

Analysis of N-nitrosames in water using micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) and development of online and offline methods of extraction and enrichment of neutral polar analytes

Evaluation of the quality of the environment is essential for human wellness as pollutants in trace amounts can cause serious health problem. Nitrosamines are a group of compounds that are considered potential carcinogens and can be found in drinking water (as disinfection byproducts), foods, beverages and cosmetics. To monitor the level of these compounds to minimize daily intakes, fast and reliable analytical techniques are required. As these compounds are relatively highly polar, extraction and enrichment from environmental samples (aqueous) are challenging. Also, the trend of analytical techniques toward the reduction of sample size and minimization of organic solvent use demands new methods of analysis. In light of fulfilling these requirements, a new method of online preconcentration tailored to an electrokinetic chromatography is introduced. In this method, electroosmotic flow (EOF) was suppressed to increase the interaction time between analyte and micellar phase, therefore the only force to mobilize the neutral analytes is the interaction of analyte with moving micelles. In absence of EOF, polarity of applied potential was switched (negative or positive) to force (anionic or cationic) micelles to move toward the detector. To avoid the excessive band broadening due to longer analysis time caused by slow moving micelles, auxiliary pressure was introduced to boost the micelle movement toward the detector using an in house designed and built apparatus. Applying the external auxiliary pressure significantly reduced the analysis times without compromising separation efficiency. Parameters, such as type of surfactants, composition of background electrolyte (BGE), type of capillary, matrix effect, organic modifiers, etc., were evaluated in optimization of the method. The enrichment factors for targeted analytes were impressive, particularly; cationic surfactants were shown to be suitable for analysis of nitrosamines due to their ability to act as hydrogen bond donors. Ammonium perfluorooctanoate (APFO) also showed remarkable results in term of peak shapes and number of theoretical plates. It was shown that the separation results were best when a high conductivity sample was paired with a BGE of lower conductivity. Using higher surfactant concentrations (up to 200 mM SDS) than usual (50 mM SDS) for micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) improved the sweeping. A new method for micro-extraction and enrichment of highly polar neutral analytes (N-Nitrosamines in particular) based on three-phase drop micro-extraction was introduced and its performance studied. In this method, a new device using some easy-to-find components was fabricated and its operation and application demonstrated. Compared to conventional extraction methods (liquid-liquid extraction), consumption of organic solvents and operation times were significantly lower.

In vitro-in vivo correlations of self-emulsifying drug delivery systems combining the dynamic lipolysis model and neuro-fuzzy networks

The aim of the current study was to evaluate the potential of the dynamic lipolysis model to simulate the absorption of a poorly soluble model drug compound, probucol, from three lipid-based formulations and to predict the in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC) using neuro-fuzzy networks. An oil solution and two self-micro and nano-emulsifying drug delivery systems were tested in the lipolysis model. The release of probucol to the aqueous (micellar) phase was monitored during the progress of lipolysis. These release profiles compared with plasma profiles obtained in a previous bioavailability study conducted in mini-pigs at the same conditions. The release rate and extent of release from the oil formulation were found to be significantly lower than from SMEDDS and SNEDDS. The rank order of probucol released (SMEDDS approximately SNEDDS > oil formulation) was similar to the rank order of bioavailability from the in vivo study. The employed neuro-fuzzy model (AFM-IVIVC) achieved significantly high prediction ability for different data formations (correlation greater than 0.91 and prediction error close to zero), without employing complex configurations. These preliminary results suggest that the dynamic lipolysis model combined with the AFM-IVIVC can be a useful tool in the prediction of the in vivo behavior of lipid-based formulations.

Development of a capillary electrophoresis method for the simultaneous analysis of artificial sweeteners, preservatives and colours in soft drinks

A rapid capillary electrophoresis method was developed simultaneously to determine artificial sweeteners, preservatives and colours used as additives in carbonated soft drinks. Resolution between all additives occurring together in soft drinks was successfully achieved within a 15-min run-time by employing the micellar electrokinetic chromatography mode with a 20 mM carbonate buffer at pH 9.5 as the aqueous phase and 62 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate as the micellar phase. By using a diode-array detector to monitor the UV-visible range (190-600 nm), the identity of sample components, suggested by migration time, could be confirmed by spectral matching relative to standards.

Self-assembly of a peptide amphiphile: transition from nanotape fibrils to micelles

A thermal transition is observed in the peptide amphiphile C16-KTTKS (TFA salt) from nanotapes at 20 degrees C to micelles at higher temperature (the transition temperature depending on concentration). The formation of extended nanotapes by the acetate salt of this peptide amphiphile, which incorporates a pentapeptide from type I procollagen, has been studied previously [V. Castelletto et al., Chem. Commun., 2010, 46, 9185]. Here, proton NMR and SAXS provide evidence for the TFA salt spherical micelles at high temperature. The phase behavior, with a Krafft temperature separating insoluble aggregates (extended nanotapes) at low temperature from the high temperature micellar phase resembles that for conventional surfactants, however this has not previously been reported for peptide amphiphiles.

Solution calorimetry as a tool for investigating drug interaction with intestinal fluid

Solution calorimetry offers a reproducible technique for measuring the enthalpy of solution (ΔsolH) of a solute dissolving into a solvent. The ΔsolH of two solutes, propranolol HCl and mannitol were determined in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) solutions designed to model the fed and fasted states within the gut, and in Hanks’ balanced salt solution (HBSS) of varying pH. The bile salt and lipid within the SIF solutions formed mixed micelles. Both solutes exhibited endothermic reactions in all solvents. The ΔsolH for propranolol HCl in the SIF solutions differed from those in the HBSS and was lower in the fed state than the fasted state SIF solution, revealing an interaction between propranolol and the micellar phase in both SIF solutions. In contrast, for mannitol the ΔsolH was constant in all solutions indicating minimal interaction between mannitol and the micellar phases of the SIF solutions. In this study, solution calorimetry proved to be a simple method for measuring the enthalpy associated with the dissolution of model drugs in complex biological media such as SIF solutions. In addition, the derived power–time curves allowed the time taken for the powdered solutes to form solutions to be estimated.

Nanostructures, semicrystalline morphology, and nanoscale confinement effect on the crystallization kinetics in self-organized block copolymer/thermoset blends

This work reports the first instance of self-organized thermoset blends containing diblock copolymers with a crystallizable thermoset-immiscible block. Nanostructured thermoset blends of bisphenol A-type epoxy resin (ER) and a low-molecular-weight (Mn = 1400) amphiphilic polyethylene-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (EEO) symmetric diblock copolymer were prepared using 4,4'-methylenedianiline (MDA) as curing agent and were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). All the MDA-cured ER/EEO blends do not show macroscopic phase separation but exhibit microstructures. The ER selectively mixes with the epoxy-miscible PEO block in the EEO diblock copolymer whereas the crystallizable PE blocks that are immiscible with ER form separate microdomains at nanoscales in the blends. The PE crystals with size on nanoscales are formed and restricted within the individual spherical micelles in the nanostructured ER/EEO blends with EEO content up to 30 wt %. The spherical micelles are highly aggregated in the blends containing 40 and 50 wt % EEO. The PE dentritic crystallites exist in the blend containing 50 wt % EEO whereas the blends with even higher EEO content are completely volume-filled with PE spherulites. The semicrystalline microphase-separated lamellae in the symmetric EEO diblock copolymer are swollen in the blend with decreasing EEO content, followed by a structural transition to aggregated spherical micellar phase morphology and, eventually, spherical micellar phase morphology at the lowest EEO contents. Three morphological regimes are identified, corresponding precisely to the three regimes of crystallization kinetics of the PE blocks. The nanoscale confinement effect on the crystallization kinetics in nanostructured thermoset blends is revealed for the first time. This new phenomenon is explained on the basis of homogeneous nucleation controlled crystallization within nanoscale confined environments in the block copolymer/thermoset blends.

Effect of a commercial alcohol ethoxylate surfactant (C11–15E7) on biodegradation of phenanthrene in a saline water medium by Neptunomonas naphthovorans

Biodegradation of poorly soluble polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has been a challenge in bioremediation. In recent years, surfactant-enhanced bioremediation of PAH contaminants has attracted great attention in research. In this study, biodegradation of phenanthrene as a model PAHs solubilized in saline micellar solutions of a biodegradable commercial alcohol ethoxylate nonionic surfactant was investigated. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) of the surfactant and its solubilization capacity for phenanthrene were examined in an artificial saline water medium, and a type of marine bacteria, Neptunomonas naphthovorans, was studied for the biodegradation of phenanthrene solubilized in the surfactant micellar solutions of the saline medium. It is found that the solubility of phenanthrene in the surfactant micellar solutions increased linearly with the surfactant concentrations, but, at a fixed phenanthrene concentration, the biodegradability of phenanthrene in the micellar solutions decreased with the increase of the surfactant concentrations. This was attributed to the reduced bioavailability of phenanthrene, due to its increased solubilization extent in the micellar phase and possibly lowered mass transfer rate from the micellar phase into the aqueous phase or into the bacterial cells. In addition, an inhibitory effect of the surfactant on the bacterial growth at high surfactant concentrations may also play a role. It is concluded that the surfactant largely enhanced the solubilization of phenanthrene in the saline water medium, but excess existence of the surfactant in the medium should be minimized or avoided for the biodegradation of phenanthrene by Neptunomonas naphthovorans.

Estudio de la movilidad que presenta el diésel en un suelo contaminado empleando surfactantes

La contaminación de suelos con hidrocarburos de petróleo en México es un problema que se ha vuelto muy común en nuestros días, debido principalmente a derrames, así como a las actividades propias de la industria petrolera. Algunos suelos contaminados, principalmente en el sureste de México, contienen concentraciones de hidrocarburos hasta de 450,000 mg/kg. Por dichas razones, una de las preocupaciones de las autoridades ambientales es el desarrollo de tecnologías eficientes y económicamente factibles que permitan la eliminación de este tipo de contaminantes. El saneamiento del sitio se puede lograr a través de diversos procedimientos, como son la aplicación de métodos físicos, químicos y biológicos (o combinaciones de ellas). La elección de un método depende de la naturaleza del contaminante, su estado físico, concentración, tipo de suelo, espacio físico disponible, tiempo destinado para su tratamiento, así como de los recursos económicos disponibles. Previa a la aplicación de la tecnología es necesario la realización de un diagnóstico de la contaminación del suelo, con el fin de conocer el tipo, concentración y distribución de los contaminantes presentes, así como el volumen de suelo a tratar, las condiciones climáticas de la zona, y características físicas del lugar (vías de acceso y servicios, entre otros). En la presente tesis, el empleo de surfactantes, se ha propuesto como una técnica para incrementar la movilidad de contaminantes orgánicos hidrofóbicos (HOCs) como hidrocarburos totales del petróleo (HTPs), bifenilos policlorados (PCBs), Benceno, Tolueno, Xilenos, explosivos, clorofenoles, pesticidas, entre otros, y así facilitar su degradación. Los surfactantes debido a que reducen la tensión superficial del agua, son moléculas formadas por grupos polares hidrofílicos y largas cadenas carbonadas hidrofóbicas. Sus grupos polares forman puentes hidrógeno con las moléculas de agua, mientras que las cadenas carbonadas se asocian a los hidrocarburos debido a interacciones hidrofóbicas que estos presentan. En soluciones acuosas, los surfactantes forman estructuras esféricas organizadas llamadas micelas. La solubilización de los contaminantes se lleva a cabo solamente cuando se forma la fase micelar, la cual se obtiene cuando la concentración del surfactante es superior a la concentración micelar crítica (CMC), es decir, arriba de la concentración de la cual el monómero se comienza a auto-agregar. La eficiencia de desorción de diésel por un surfactante depende de su naturaleza, de la dosis empleada, de la hidrofobicidad del contaminante, de la interacción surfactante-suelo y del tiempo de contacto surfactante-suelo. Sin embargo, la mejor eficiencia de desorción no está siempre relacionada con la mejor eficiencia de movilidad o solubilidad, debido principalmente a que el empleo de una alta concentración de surfactante puede inhibir la movilización. De acuerdo con información proporcionada por la Procuraduría Federal de Protección al Ambiente (PROFEPA), a la fecha no se ha llevado a cabo en México ninguna restauración de sitios específicamente contaminados con diésel, la técnica de lavado de suelos. Por lo anterior existe la necesidad de emplear la técnica de lavado de suelos ex situ. Específicamente en el suelo extraído de la ex refinería 18 de marzo ubicada en el Distrito Federal México y empleando una solución de surfactantes con agua desionizada, la cual consiste ponerlos en contacto con el suelo contaminado con diésel por medio de columnas de lavado cilíndricas, para lograr la remoción del contaminante. Se emplearon como surfactantes el lauril sulfato de sodio, lauril éter sulfato de sodio y Glucopon AV-100 a diferentes concentraciones de 0.5 a 4.0 [g/L], lográndose obtener una eficiencia del 80 % con este último surfactante. El lavado de suelos contaminados con diésel empleado surfactantes, es una tecnología que requiere que se profundice en el estudio de algunas variables como son el tipo de surfactante, concentración, tiempo de lavado, fenómenos de difusión, desorción, propiedades termodinámicas, entre otros. Los cuales determinarán el éxito o fracaso de la técnica empleada. Nowadays, soil pollution with oil in Mexico is a very common issue due mainly to both oil spill and oil activities. For example, mainly in the southeast area of Mexico, polluted soil contains high concentrations of hydrocarbons, up to 450,000 mg/kg. For these reasons, enviromental authorities have the concern in developing economically feasible and efficient technology that allow the elimination of these type of contaminants. The sanitation in sites can be achieved through several procedures such as physical, chemical and biological methods (or a combination among them). The choice of a method depends on the nature and physical state of the contaminant, the concentration, type of soil, physical space available, time consumption and financial resources. Before any technological application, a diagnostic of the polluted soil is necessary in order to know the type, concentration and distribution of contaminants as well as the soil volume, climatic conditions and physical features of the place (access routes and services, among others). In this thesis, surfactants has been proposed as a technique to increase the mobility of hydrophobic-organic contaminants (HOCs), e.g. total hydrocarbons of petroleum, polychlorinated biphenyls, benzene, toluene, xylenes, explosives, chlorophenols, pesticides, among others, and, hence, to facilitate degradation. Since surfactants reduce the water surface tension, they are molecules comprised of hydrophilic polar groups and long-hydrophobic carbon chains. Surfactant’s polar groups form hydrogen bonding with water molecules while carbon chains, i.e. hydrocarbon chains, have hydrophobic interactios. In aqueous solutions, surfactants form self-organised spherical structures called micelles. The solubilisation of contaminants is carried out only when the micellar phase is formed. This is obtained when the surfactant concentration is higher than the crítical micelle concentration (CMC), i.e. above the concentration where the surfactant monomer begins to self-aggregate. The diesel efficiency desorption by surfactants depends on their nature, the dose use, the contaminant hydrophobicity, the surfactant-soil interaction and the contact time with surfactant soil. However, the best desorption is not always related with the best either mobility or solubility efficiency since high concentration of surfactant can inhibit mobilisation. According to information of the Federal Bureau of Environmental Protection (PROFEPA), up today, there is not any restauration of diesel-polluted sites using the washing-soil technique. Due to the above, there exist the necessity of employing the waching-soil technique ex situ. More specifically, a sample soil from the oil-refinery of “18 de marzo” in Mexico city was extracted and a surfactant solution with deionised water was put in contact with the diesel contaminated soil by means of cylindrical waching columns in order to remove the contaminant. The surfactants employed in this work were sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl ether sulfate and Glucopon AV-100 at different concentrations of 0.5 to 4 [g/L], obtaining a efficiency of 80 % with this last surfactant. The washing of diesel-polluted soil using surfactants is a technology which requires a deeper study of some variables such as the type of surfactant, concentration, washing time, difusión phenomena, desorption, thermodynamic properties, among others. These parameters determine the succes or failure of the employed technique.

Nanostructures, Semicrytalline Morphology, and Nanoscale Confinement Effect on the Crystallization Kinetics in Self-Organized Block Copolymer/Thermoset Blends

This work reports the first instance of self-organized thermoset blends containing diblock copolymers with a crystallizable thermoset-immiscible block. Nanostructured thermoset blends of bisphenol A-type epoxy resin (ER) and a low-molecular-weight (M-n = 1400) amphiphilic polyethylene-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (EEO) symmetric diblock copolymer were prepared using 4,4'-methylenedianiline (MDA) as curing agent and were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). All the MDA-cured ER/EEO blends do not show macroscopic phase separation but exhibit microstructures. The ER selectively mixes with the epoxy-miscible PEO block in the EEO diblock copolymer whereas the crystallizable PE blocks that are immiscible with ER form separate microdomains at nanoscales in the blends. The PE crystals with size on nanoscales are formed and restricted within the individual spherical micelles in the nanostructured ER/EEO blends with EEO content up to 30 wt %. The spherical micelles are highly aggregated in the blends containing 40 and 50 wt % EEO. The PE dentritic crystallites exist in the blend containing 50 wt % EEO whereas the blends with even higher EEO content are completely volume-filled with PE spherulites. The semicrystalline microphase-separated lamellae in the symmetric EEO diblock copolymer are swollen in the blend with decreasing EEO content, followed by a structural transition to aggregated spherical micellar phase morphology and, eventually, spherical micellar phase morphology at the lowest EEO contents. Three morphological regimes are identified, corresponding precisely to the three regimes of crystallization kinetics of the PE blocks. The nanoscale confinement effect on the crystallization kinetics in nanostructured thermoset blends is revealed for the first time. This new phenomenon is explained on the basis of homogeneous nucleation controlled crystallization within nanoscale confined environments in the block copolymer/thermoset blends.

Submicron dispersions of hexosomes based on novel glycerate surfactants

Glycerate-based surfactants are a new class of swelling amphiphiles which swell to a finite degree with water. Among this class of surfactants, oleyl (cis-octadec-9-enyl) glycerate is very similar in structure to a well characterized mesophase-forming lipid, glyceryl monooleate (GMO). Despite the similar structural characteristics, a subtle change in connectivity of the ester bond substantially alters the binary surfactant-water phase behaviour. Whereas the phase behaviour of GMO is diverse and dominated by cubic phases, the phase behaviour of oleyl glycerate and a terpenoid analogue phytanyl (3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-hexadecane) glycerate is much simplified. Both exhibit an inverse hexagonal phase (H-II), which is stable to dilution with excess water, and an inverse micellar phase (L-II) at ambient temperatures. The inverse hexagonal phases formed by oleyl glycerate and phytanyl glycerate have been characterized using SAXS. Analogous to GMO cubosomes, the inverse hexagonal phase of phytanyl glycerate has been dispersed to form hexagonally facetted particles, termed hexosomes, whose structure has been verified using cryo-TEM.

Influence of salts on the coexistence curve and protein partitioning in nonionic aqueous two-phase micellar systems

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Dextran sulfate/Triton X two-phase micellar systems as an alternative first purification step for clavulanic acid

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)