Induction of apoptosis by mercury compounds depends on maturation and is not associated with microglial activation

The earliest sign of neurotoxicity observed after exposure of three-dimensional brain cell cultures to low concentrations of mercury compounds is a microglial reaction. We hypothesized that an induction of apoptosis by mercury compounds could be an activating signal of the microglial reaction. Aggregating brain cell cultures of fetal rat telencephalon were treated for 10 days with either mercury chloride or monomethylmercury chloride at noncytotoxic concentrations during two developmental periods: from day 5 to 15, corresponding to an immature stage, and from day 25 to 35 corresponding to a mature stage. Apoptosis was evaluated by the TUNEL technique. It was found that both mercury compounds caused a significant increase in the number of apoptotic cells, but exclusively in immature cultures exhibiting also spontaneous apoptosis. Double staining by the TUNEL technique combined with either neuronal or astroglial markers revealed that the proportion of cells undergoing apoptosis was highest for astrocytes. Furthermore neither an association nor a colocalization was found between apoptotic cells and microglial cells. In conclusion, it appears that the induction of apoptosis by mercury compounds in immature cells is only an acceleration of a spontaneously occurring process, and that it is not a directly related to the early microglial reaction.

Comparison of the developmental effects of two mercury compounds on glial cells and neurons in aggregate cultures of rat telencephalon.

A three-dimensional cell culture system was used as a model to study the influence of low levels of mercury in the developing brain. Aggregating cell cultures of fetal rat telencephalon were treated for 10 days either during an early developmental period (i.e., between days 5 and 15 in vitro) or during a phase of advanced maturation (i.e., between days 25 and 35) with mercury. An inorganic (HgCl2) and an organic mercury compound (monomethylmercury chloride, MeHgCl) were examined. By monitoring changes in cell type-specific enzymes activities, the concentration-dependent toxicity of the compounds was determined. In immature cultures, a general cytotoxicity was observed at 10(-6) M for both mercury compounds. In these cultures, HgCl2 appeared somewhat more toxic than MeHgCl. However, no appreciable demethylation of MeHgCl could be detected, indicating similar toxic potencies for both mercury compounds. In highly differentiated cultures, by contrast, MeHgCl exhibited a higher toxic potency than HgCl2. In addition, at 10(-6) M, MeHgCl showed pronounced neuron-specific toxicity. Below the cytotoxic concentrations, distinct glia-specific reactions could be observed with both mercury compounds. An increase in the immunoreactivity for glial fibrillary acidic protein, typical for gliosis, could be observed at concentrations between 10(-9) M and 10(-7) M in immature cultures, and between 10(-8) M and 3 x 10(-5) M in highly differentiated cultures. A conspicuous increase in the number and clustering of GSI-B4 lectin-binding cells, indicating a microglial response, was found at concentrations between 10(-10) M and 10(-7) M. These development-dependent and cell type-specific effects may reflect the pathogenic potential of long-term exposure to subclinical doses of mercury.

Developmental toxicity from exposure to various forms of mercury compounds in medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) embryos.

This study examined developmental toxicity of different mercury compounds, including some used in traditional medicines. Medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos were exposed to 0.001-10 µM concentrations of MeHg, HgCl2, α-HgS (Zhu Sha), and β-HgS (Zuotai) from stage 10 (6-7 hpf) to 10 days post fertilization (dpf). Of the forms of mercury in this study, the organic form (MeHg) proved the most toxic followed by inorganic mercury (HgCl2), both producing embryo developmental toxicity. Altered phenotypes included pericardial edema with elongated or tube heart, reduction of eye pigmentation, and failure of swim bladder inflation. Both α-HgS and β-HgS were less toxic than MeHg and HgCl2. Total RNA was extracted from survivors three days after exposure to MeHg (0.1 µM), HgCl2 (1 µM), α-HgS (10 µM), or β-HgS (10 µM) to examine toxicity-related gene expression. MeHg and HgCl2 markedly induced metallothionein (MT) and heme oxygenase-1 (Ho-1), while α-HgS and β-HgS failed to induce either gene. Chemical forms of mercury compounds proved to be a major determinant in their developmental toxicity.

Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of low doses of mercury chloride and methylmercury chloride on human lymphocytes in vitro

Mercury is a xenobiotic metal that is a highly deleterious environmental pollutant. The biotransformation of mercury chloride (HgCl2) into methylmercury chloride (CH3HgCl) in aquatic environments is well-known and humans are exposed by consumption of contaminated fish, shellfish and algae. The objective of the present study was to determine the changes induced in vitro by two mercury compounds (HgCl2 and CH3HgCl) in cultured human lymphocytes. Short-term human leukocyte cultures from 10 healthy donors (5 females and 5 males) were set-up by adding drops of whole blood in complete medium. Cultures were separately and simultaneously treated with low doses (0.1 to 1000 µg/l) of HgCl2 and CH3HgCl and incubated at 37ºC for 48 h. Genotoxicity was assessed by chromosome aberrations and polyploid cells. Mitotic index was used as a measure of cytotoxicity. A significant increase (P < 0.05) in the relative frequency of chromosome aberrations was observed for all concentrations of CH3HgCl when compared to control, whether alone or in an evident sinergistic combination with HgCl2. The frequency of polyploid cells was also significantly increased (P < 0.05) when compared to control after exposure to all concentrations of CH3HgCl alone or in combination with HgCl2. CH3HgCl significantly decreased (P < 0.05) the mitotic index at 100 and 1000 µg/l alone, and at 1, 10, 100, and 1000 µg/l when combined with HgCl2, showing a synergistic cytotoxic effect. Our data showed that low concentrations of CH3HgCl might be cytotoxic/genotoxic. Such effects may indicate early cellular changes with possible biological consequences and should be considered in the preliminary evaluation of the risks of populations exposed in vivo to low doses of mercury.

Protective effects of organoselenium compounds against methylmercury-induced oxidative stress in mouse brain mitochondrial-enriched fractions

We evaluated the potential neuroprotective effect of 1-100 µM of four organoselenium compounds: diphenyl diselenide, 3’3-ditri-fluoromethyldiphenyl diselenide, p-methoxy-diphenyl diselenide, and p-chloro-diphenyl diselenide, against methylmercury-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in mitochondrial-enriched fractions from adult Swiss mouse brain. Methylmercury (10-100 µM) significantly decreased mitochondrial activity, assessed by MTT reduction assay, in a dose-dependent manner, which occurred in parallel with increased glutathione oxidation, hydroperoxide formation (xylenol orange assay) and lipid peroxidation end-products (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, TBARS). The co-incubation with diphenyl diselenide (100 µM) completely prevented the disruption of mitochondrial activity as well as the increase in TBARS levels caused by methylmercury. The compound 3’3-ditrifluoromethyldiphenyl diselenide provided a partial but significant protection against methylmercury-induced mitochondrial dysfunction (45.4 ± 5.8% inhibition of the methylmercury effect). Diphenyl diselenide showed a higher thiol peroxidase activity compared to the other three compounds. Catalase blocked methylmercury-induced TBARS, pointing to hydrogen peroxide as a vector during methylmercury toxicity in this model. This result also suggests that thiol peroxidase activity of organoselenium compounds accounts for their protective actions against methylmercury-induced oxidative stress. Our results show that diphenyl diselenide and potentially other organoselenium compounds may represent important molecules in the search for an improved therapy against the deleterious effects of methylmercury as well as other mercury compounds.

Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of low doses of mercury chloride and methylmercury chloride on human lymphocytes in vitro

Mercury is a xenobiotic metal that is a highly deleterious environmental pollutant. The biotransformation of mercury chloride (HgCl2) into methylmercury chloride (CH3HgCl) in aquatic environments is well-known and humans are exposed by consumption of contaminated fish, shellfish and algae. The objective of the present study was to determine the changes induced in vitro by two mercury compounds (HgCl2 and CH3HgCl) in cultured human lymphocytes. Short-term human leukocyte cultures from 10 healthy donors (5 females and 5 males) were set-up by adding drops of whole blood in complete medium. Cultures were separately and simultaneously treated with low doses (0.1 to 1000 µg/l) of HgCl2 and CH3HgCl and incubated at 37ºC for 48 h. Genotoxicity was assessed by chromosome aberrations and polyploid cells. Mitotic index was used as a measure of cytotoxicity. A significant increase (P < 0.05) in the relative frequency of chromosome aberrations was observed for all concentrations of CH3HgCl when compared to control, whether alone or in an evident sinergistic combination with HgCl2. The frequency of polyploid cells was also significantly increased (P < 0.05) when compared to control after exposure to all concentrations of CH3HgCl alone or in combination with HgCl2. CH3HgCl significantly decreased (P < 0.05) the mitotic index at 100 and 1000 µg/l alone, and at 1, 10, 100, and 1000 µg/l when combined with HgCl2, showing a synergistic cytotoxic effect. Our data showed that low concentrations of CH3HgCl might be cytotoxic/genotoxic. Such effects may indicate early cellular changes with possible biological consequences and should be considered in the preliminary evaluation of the risks of populations exposed in vivo to low doses of mercury.

Distribuição do mercúrio nas águas termais e engarrafadas do Norte de Portugal

O aumento da utilização do mercúrio, Hg, tanto para fins industriais como na aplicação de compostos mercuriais na agricultura, originaram um aumento significativo da contaminação ambiental, especialmente das águas e dos alimentos. Foi aprofundado o estudo sobre o mercúrio, nomeadamente as suas principais fontes de emissão, a sua toxicidade, os principais efeitos nos seres humanos, algumas medidas preventivas, os limites máximos que a legislação permite, que no caso das águas analisadas é de 0,001mg/L, os métodos analíticos para a sua determinação e alguns métodos de amostragem, tanto para o mercúrio em águas como em sedimentos. Em Almadén (Espanha), existe uma mina que pode ser considerada como uma das maiores anomalias geoqímica de mercúrio na Terra. Com este trabalho pretendeu-se perceber a possível existência de mercúrio nas águas termais ao longo da zona de falha Penacova-Régua-Verin e avaliar a existência de uma relação entre os níveis de mercúrio e o seu contexto geológico. Neste trabalho, foi desenvolvido um método simples para a determinação dos níveis de mercúrio em águas, utilizando a espectrometria de absorção atómica de fonte contínua de alta resolução acoplado à técnica de vapor frio. O objectivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os níveis de mercúrio existente em algumas águas engarrafadas e termais. Os limites de detecção da técnica utilizada foram 0,0595 μg/L e os de quantificação foram 0,2100 μg/L. Depois de analisadas as amostras verificou-se que os níveis de mercúrio encontrados nas águas eram inferiores ao limite de quantificação da técnica e por isso, não foi possível extrapolar qualquer relação entre os níveis de mercúrio e as alterações do fundo geológico. Como o limite de quantificação é inferior ao limite máximo permitido por lei, pode então dizer-se que todas as águas se encontram abaixo do limite máximo permitido.

Syphilis and cirrhosis: a lethal combination in a XIX century individual identified from the Medical Schools Collection at the University of Coimbra (Portugal)

Syphilis is a chronic infection that is categorized by a three-stage progression. The tertiary stage may affect bones and produce distinctive skull lesions called caries sicca. This paper aims to present an unusual case of syphilis associated with a diagnosis of cirrhosis, which was recorded as the cause of death in a 28-year-old female in 1899. The appearance and distribution of the lesions were compatible with acquired syphilis, as observed in the skull from the Medical Schools Collection of the University of Coimbra. However, the cause of death was recorded as "hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver", this is a condition that is compatible with several liver disorders, including a primary liver disorder, such as cirrhosis provoked by alcoholism, infection of the liver by syphilis pathogens or by damage to the liver from the use of mercury compounds, which was the common treatment for syphilis at the time. This paper represents a contribution to the understanding of the natural evolution of syphilis.

Compostos de mercúrio. Revisão de métodos de determinação, tratamento e descarte

This review article on mercury compounds deals with the differences on toxicity of different forms of this metal, the Brazilian regulation for its disposal and the usual methods of determination. Besides that, the text gives special emphasis on the methods used for the treatment and disposal of residues containing mercury, as well as the new developments being made in this area.

Arseeni ja elohopea maaperässä ja vesistöissä

Maapallon väestön kasvaessa ja tarpeen makealle vedelle, ruualle ja viljelymaalle noustessa on tärkeää alkaa kiinnittää entistä tarkemmin huomiota vesistöjen ja maaperän saastumiseen myrkyllisillä raskasmetalleilla. Erityisesti elohopea ja arseeni, jotka jo nyt vaikuttavat heikentävästi miljoonien ihmisten elämään eri puolilla maapalloa, on syytä ottaa huolelliseen tarkkailuun. Raskasmetallien päästölähteet voidaan jakaa kahteen luokkaan, luonnollisiin ja ihmisperäisiin. Ihmisperäisiin päästölähteisiin voidaan vaikuttaa muun muassa teollisuutta ja liikennettä koskevalla lainsäädännöllä. Luonnollisiin päästölähteisiin vaikuttaminen on huomattavasti haastavampaa, mutta niiden haittaa ihmisille on mahdollista pienentää muun muassa parempien vedenpuhdistustekniikoiden avulla. Tämän työn kirjallisuusosassa tullaan esittelemään erityyppisiä luonnossa esiintyviä arseenin ja elohopean yhdisteitä, suurimpia arseenin ja elohopean päästölähteitä, sekä näiden raskasmetallien haitallisia terveysvaikutuksia. Kokeellisessa osassa tullaan keskittymään arseenin analysointiin nestemäisistä näytteistä. Näytteinä käytettiin tuntemattomilta kaatopaikoilta otettuja suotovesinäytteitä, sekä Pien-Saimaan pintavesinäytteitä. Analyyseihin on käytetty ICP-AES laitteistoa sekä kapillaarielektroforeesia.

Purification and characterization of xylanases from Aspergillus giganteus

A strain of Aspergillus giganteus cultivated in a medium with xylan produced two xylanases (xylanase I and II) which were purified to homogeneity. Their molar mass, estimated by SDS-PAGE, were 21 and 24 kDa, respectively. Both enzymes are glycoproteins with 50°C temperature optimum; optimum pH was 6.0-6.5 for xylanase I and 6.0 for xylanase II. At 50°C xylanase I exhibited higher thermostability than xylanase II. Hg2+, Cu 2+ and SDS were strong inhibitors, 1,4-dithiothreitol stimulated the reaction of both enzymes. Both xylanases are xylan-specific; kinetic parameters indicated higher efficiency in the hydrolysis of oat spelts xylan. In hydrolysis of this substrate, xylotriose, xylotetraose and larger xylooligosaccharides were released and hence the enzymes were classified as endoxylanases.

Investigação dos efeitos protetores do selenito de sódio sobre a neurotoxicidade do metilmercúrio em diferentes períodos de desenvolvimento de ratos wistar

A exposição a compostos mercuriais resulta em danos oxidativos, afetando gravemente o sistema nervoso central, como observado em humanos e em modelos experimentais. Este trabalho utilizou ratos Wistar em diferentes períodos do neuro-desenvolvimento a fim de investigar possíveis efeitos protetores do selênio (selenito de sódio) em um modelo in vivo de exposição ao metilmercúrio (MeHg). Os sujeitos (grupos de idades P1 e P21) receberam por amamentação ou via oral: veículo, Selênio (5ppm), MeHg (10ppm) ou Selênio (5ppm) mais MeHg (10ppm) durante 20 e 10 dias respectivamente (n = 8 por grupo). Após o tratamento, os ratos foram submetidos aos testes de campo aberto e labirinto aquático a fim de analisar déficits motores e de memória/aprendizagem, respectivamente. Para fins de análise histológica, foi realizada perfusão e imunohistoquimica para Neu-N. Com o objetivo de aferir possíveis efeitos deletérios sobre populações neuronais, foi feita contagem estereológica dos neurônios do hipocampo (camada polimórfica do giro denteado). Como resultado, foi observada redução significativa na atividade locomotora de neonatos (P1) mediante exposição ao MeHg. Além disso, nos grupos expostos ao MeHg (isoladamente ou associado ao selênio) verificou-se déficits de aprendizagem e memória. Já os animais P21 expostos ao MeHg apresentaram aumento na atividade locomotora, efeito abolido pela administração concomitante de selênio. Quando submetidos ao labirinto aquático, observou-se redução do tempo de latência apenas no grupo controle e naqueles animais expostos ao selênio. Como resultado das contagens estereológicas, observou-se diminuição do número de neurônios no hipocampo somente nos animais P21 expostos ao mercúrio. Os resultados obtidos sob estas condições experimentais mostraram que a exposição ao MeHg resultou em efeitos comportamentais diversos dependentes da idade dos sujeitos. A administração de selênio só foi capaz de interferir positivamente nos déficits locomotores observados em animais mais velhos. Além disso, foi observado que a administração de selênio não interferiu nos distúrbios comportamentais de memória/aprendizagem, tampouco na morte neuronal induzida por MeHg. Possíveis mecanismos associados a este padrão de proteção parcial por selênio, especialmente em estágios mais avançados de desenvolvimento neural ainda necessitam ser elucidados.

Konzeptionelle Entwicklung von Mikrokosmos-Experimenten zur Untersuchung der speziesspezifischen Transformationsprozesse des Quecksilbers mittels Isotopenverhältnisbestimmungen

Zur Untersuchung der speziesspezifischen Transformationsprozesse des Quecksilbers in der Umwelt wurden erstmalig Mikrokosmosexperimente unter Verwendung von isotopenangereicherten Verbindungen durchgeführt. Es wurden naturrelevante Bedingungen simuliert, um eine spätere Übertragbarkeit der Ergebnisse auf den biogeochemischen Kreislauf des Quecksilbers zu gewährleisten. Die aufgebauten Mikrokosmen bestanden aus Boden/Pflanzen/Luft-Kompartimenten. Der Boden der Mikrokosmen wurde mit isotopenangereicherten Quecksilberspezies dotiert. Durch die Verwendung von isotopenangereicherten Verbindungen, verbunden mit gleichzeitiger ICP/MS-Detektion, konnten auftretende Transformationsprozesse beobachtet werden. Die Messung der Quecksilberspezies erfolgte mittels GC-ICP/MS nach vorheriger Derivatisierung mit Natriumtetraethylborat und Anreicherung per 'purge and trap'.Die Massenspuren der einzelnen Quecksilberisotope wurden für alle Quecksilberspezies gemessen und daraus dann für jede Spezies die Isotopenverhältnisse gebildet. Bei einer Änderung des Isotopenverhältnisses kann von einer Speziestransformation ausgegangen werden.Aus den Mikrokosmosexperimenten, denen Methylquecksilber als angereicherte Isotopenverbindung zugegeben wurde, konnte gefolgert werden, dass Methylquecksilber im Boden zunächst zu anorganischem Quecksilber demethyliert wurde. Im Anschluss daran erfolgte eine Reduktion zu elementarem Quecksilber. Dieses gebildete elementare Quecksilber verflüchtigte sich nahezu vollständig (ca. 90-100%) vom Boden in die Atmosphäre.Bei der Zugabe von anorganischem Quecksilber als angereicherte Isotopenverbindung in den Boden wurde vorwiegend eine Reduktion zu elementarem Quecksilber beobachtet, das dann in die Atmosphäre emittiert. Es konnte aber auch eine geringe Methylierung (ca. 5%) zu Methylquecksilber beobachtet werden. Daraus kann gefolgert werden, dass die methylierten Quecksilberverbindungen eine wesentliche Rolle im natürlichen Kreislauf des Quecksilbers spielen.Parallel zu den Mikrokosmosexperimenten wurden Feldversuche in einem flussnahen Feuchtgebiet, aus dem auch der Boden für die Mikrokosmosexperimente entnommen worden war, durchgeführt. In den Feldversuchen wurden Quecksilberkonzentrationen und der Quecksilberfluss zwischen dem Boden und der Atmosphäre mit Hilfe von Flusskammerexperimenten bestimmt. Es konnten mit Hilfe von Mikrokosmen, die natürliche Verhältnisse simulieren sollten, und mit Hilfe verschieden angereicherter Isotopenspikes erstmals Speziestransformationen des Quecksilbers direkt beobachtet werden. Die GC-ICP/MS-Methode ermöglichte eine eindeutige Identifikation von Edukt und Produkt der jeweiligen Umwandlung. Allerdings wurde die Untersuchung eingeschränkt durch die irreversiblen biologischen Veränderungen in den eingesetzten Mikrokosmen nach über einer Woche und durch die Notwendigkeit, vergleichsweise hohe Konzentrationen der Spikes einzusetzen, um eine statistisch signifikante Auswertung der Veränderung der Isotopenverhältnisse zu erreichen. Somit sind Mikrokosmosexperimente nur eingeschränkt für Untersuchungen des Quecksilberverhaltens geeignet.Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ist es aber gelungen, die Mikrokosmenexperimente unter Verwendung von isotopenangereicherten Verbindungen und der GC-ICP/MS-Methode als leistungsstarkes Verfahren zur Beobachtung von Speziestransformationsprozessen des Quecksilbers zu etablieren.

Weiterentwicklung einer GC/AFD-Methode zur Bestimmung von Methylquecksilberverbindungen in der Umwelt und deren Anwendung in anthropogen beeinflussten und unbeeinflussten Regionen

Zusammenfassung Quecksilber kommt in der Natur in seinen vier umweltrelevanten Spezies Hg0, Hg2+, Me2Hg, MeHg+ vor. Die methylierten Spezies wurden dabei in der Vergangenheit aufgrund ihres relativ geringen Anteils am Gesamtquecksilber oft vernachlässigt. Me2Hg und MeHg+ spielen aber eine wichtige Rolle als intermediäre Transportspezies im Quecksilberkreislauf, und eine richtige Analytik dieser Verbindungen ist daher notwendig. Die GC/AFD-Methode (Gaschromatographie/Atomfluoreszenzdetektion) in Verbindung mit einem Purge&Trap-Probenaufgabesystem ermöglicht eine nachweisstarke Analytik dieser Verbindungen in Umweltproben. Dabei müssen die ionischen Quecksilberverbindungen MeHg+ und Hg2+ derivatisiert werden, um sie einer gaschromatographischen Trennung zugänglich zu machen.Das bestehende Verfahren wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit mit Hilfe einer alternativen Derivatisierungsmethode verbessert. Das optimierte Verfahren erlaubt auch eine Analyse von MeHg+-Gehalten in Proben mit hoher Chloridbelastung. Solche Proben konnten mit der herkömmlichen Ethylierung als Derivatisierungsmethode nicht analysiert werden, da während der Derivatisierung eine Umwandlung des MeHg+ zu Hg0 auftritt. Bei der Propylierung findet keine solche Transformation statt und sie ist daher eine hervorragende Ergänzung der bestehenden Methode.Die GC/AFD-Methode wurde zur Quecksilberspeziation in der Antarktis als Beispiel für ein anthropogen unbeeinflusstes Gebiet verwendet. Dabei konnten methylierte Quecksilberverbindungen im Meerwasser, in der Atmosphäre und erstmals im antarktischen Schnee nachgewiesen werden und somit die bedeutende Rolle der methylierten Quecksilberspezies am biogeochemischen Stoffkreislauf des Quecksilbers in dieser Region gezeigt werden. Vergleiche mit einer kontinentalen Region zeigten, dass dort MeHg+ und Me2Hg wesentlich weniger produziert bzw. schneller abgebaut werden.