Advantages of using nested collision induced dissociation/post-source decay with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry: sequencing of novel peptides from wasp venom

We have examined the applicability of the 'nested' collision induced dissociation/post-source decay (CID/PSD) method to the sequencing of novel peptides from solitary wasps which have neurotoxic venom for paralyzing other insects. The CID/PSD spectrum of a ladder peptide derived from an exopeptidase digest was compared with that of the intact peptide. The mass peaks observed only in the CID/PSD spectrum of a ladder peptide were extracted as C-terminal fragment ions. Assignment of C-terminal fragment ions enabled calculation of N-terminal fragment masses, leading to differentiation between N-terminal fragment ions and internal fragment ions. This methodology allowed rapid and sensitive identification by removing ambiguity in the assignment of the fragment ions, and proved useful for sequencing unknown peptides, in particular those available as natural products with a limited supply. Copyright (C) 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Highlights in Analytical Chemistry in Switzerland: OMA & OPA - A Software Tool for Mass Spectrometric Sequencing of Nucleic Acids

Oligonucleotides comprising unnatural building blocks, which interfere with the translation machinery, have gained increased attention for the treatment of gene-related diseases (e.g. antisense, RNAi). Due to structural modifications, synthetic oligonucleotides exhibit increased biostability and bioavailability upon administration. Consequently, classical enzyme-based sequencing methods are not applicable to their sequence elucidation and verification. Tandem mass spectrometry is the method of choice for performing such tasks, since gas-phase dissociation is not restricted to natural nucleic acids. However, tandem mass spectrometric analysis can generate product ion spectra of tremendous complexity, as the number of possible fragments grows rapidly with increasing sequence length. The fact that structural modifications affect the dissociation pathways greatly increases the variety of analytically valuable fragment ions. The gas-phase dissociation of oligonucleotides is characterized by the cleavage of one of the four bonds along the phosphodiester chain, by the accompanying loss of nucleases, and by the generation of internal fragments due to secondary backbone cleavage. For example, an 18-mer oligonucleotide yields a total number of 272’920 theoretical fragment ions. In contrast to the processing of peptide product ion spectra, which nowadays is highly automated, there is a lack of tools assisting the interpretation of oligonucleotide data. The existing web-based and stand-alone software applications are primarily designed for the sequence analysis of natural nucleic acids, but do not account for chemical modifications and adducts. Consequently, we developed a software to support the interpretation of mass spectrometric data of natural and modified nucleic acids and their adducts with chemotherapeutic agents.

Multiple bradykinin-related peptlides from the capture web of the spider Nephila clavipes (Araneae, Tetragnatidae)

Three bradykinin-related peptides (nephilakinins-I to -III) and bradykinin itself were isolated from the aqueous washing extract of the capture web of the spider Nephila clavipes by gel permeation chromatography on a Sephacryl S-100 column, followed by chromatography in a Hi-Trap Sephadex-G25 Superfine column. The novel peptides occur-red in low concentrations and were sequenced through ESI-MS/MS analysis: nephilakinin-I (G-P-N-P-G-F-S-P-F-R-NH2), nephilakinin-Il (E-A-P-P-G-F-S-P-F-R-NH2) and nephilakinin-III (P-S-P-P-G-F-S-P-F-R-NH2)- Synthetic peptides replicated the novel bradykinin-related peptides, which were submitted to biological characterizations. Nephilakinins were shown to cause constriction on isolated rat ileum preparations and relaxation on rat duodenum muscle preparations at amounts higher than bradykinin; apparently these peptides constitute B-2-type agonists of ileal and duodenal smooth muscles. All peptides including the bradykinin were moderately lethal to honeybees. These bradykinin peptides may be related to the predation of insects by the webs of N. clauipes. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Sequencing of T-superfamily conotoxins from Conus virgo: Pyroglutamic acid identification and disulfide arrangement by MALDI mass spectrometry

De novo mass spectrometric sequencing of two Conus peptides, Vi1359 and Vi1361, from the vermivorous cone snail Conus virgo, found off the southern Indian coast, is presented. The peptides, whose masses differ only by 2 Da, possess two disulfide bonds and an amidated C-terminus. Simple chemical modifications and enzymatic cleavage coupled with matrix assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometric analysis aided in establishing the sequences of Vi1359, ZCCITIPECCRI-NH2, and Vi1361, ZCCPTMPECCRI-NH2, Which differ only at residues 4 and 6 (Z = pyroglutamic acid). The presence of the pyroglutamyl residue at the N-terminus was unambiguously identified by chemical hydrolysis of the cyclic amide, followed by esterification. The presence of Ile residues in both the peptides was confirmed from high-energy collision induced dissociation (CID) studies, using the observation Of W-n- and d(n)-ions as a diagnostic. Differential cysteine labeling, in conjunction with MALDI-MS/MS, permitted establishment of disulfide connectivity in both peptides as Cys2-Cys9 and Cys3-Cys10. The cysteine pattern clearly reveals that the peptides belong to the class of T-superfamily conotoxins, in particular the T-1 superfamily.

Deriving structural information from non-coding ribonucleic acids by mass spectrometry

The purpose of this study is to describe the development of application of mass spectrometry for the structural analyses of non-coding ribonucleic acids during past decade. Mass spectrometric methods are compared of traditional gel electrophoretic methods, the characteristics of performance of mass spectrometric, analyses are studied and the future trends of mass spectrometry of ribonucleic acids are discussed. Non-coding ribonucleic acids are short polymeric biomolecules which are not translated to proteins, but which may affect the gene expression in all organisms. Regulatory ribonucleic acids act through transient interactions with key molecules in signal transduction pathways. Interactions are mediated through specific secondary and tertiary structures. Posttranscriptional modifications in the structures of molecules may introduce new properties to the organism, such as adaptation to environmental changes or development of resistance to antibiotics. In the scope of this study, the structural studies include i) determination of the sequence of nucleobases in the polymer chain, ii) characterisation and localisation of posttranscriptional modifications in nucleobases and in the backbone structure, iii) identification of ribonucleic acid-binding molecules and iv) probing of higher order structures in the ribonucleic acid molecule. Bacteria, archaea, viruses and HeLa cancer cells have been used as target organisms. Synthesised ribonucleic acids consisting of structural regions of interest have been frequently used. Electrospray ionisation (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation (MALDI) have been used for ionisation of ribonucleic analytes. Ammonium acetate and 2-propanol are common solvents for ESI. Trihydroxyacetophenone is the optimal MALDI matrix for ionisation of ribonucleic acids and peptides. Ammonium salts are used in ESI buffers and MALDI matrices as additives to remove cation adducts. Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography has been used for desalting and fractionation of analytes either off-line of on-line, coupled with ESI source. Triethylamine and triethylammonium bicarbonate are used as ion pair reagents almost exclusively. Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance analyser using ESI coupled with liquid chromatography is the platform of choice for all forms of structural analyses. Time-of-flight (TOF) analyser using MALDI may offer sensitive, easy-to-use and economical solution for simple sequencing of longer oligonucleotides and analyses of analyte mixtures without prior fractionation. Special analysis software is used for computer-aided interpretation of mass spectra. With mass spectrometry, sequences of 20-30 nucleotides of length may be determined unambiguously. Sequencing may be applied to quality control of short synthetic oligomers for analytical purposes. Sequencing in conjunction with other structural studies enables accurate localisation and characterisation of posttranscriptional modifications and identification of nucleobases and amino acids at the sites of interaction. High throughput screening methods for RNA-binding ligands have been developed. Probing of the higher order structures has provided supportive data for computer-generated three dimensional models of viral pseudoknots. In conclusion. mass spectrometric methods are well suited for structural analyses of small species of ribonucleic acids, such as short non-coding ribonucleic acids in the molecular size region of 20-30 nucleotides. Structural information not attainable with other methods of analyses, such as nuclear magnetic resonance and X-ray crystallography, may be obtained with the use of mass spectrometry. Sequencing may be applied to quality control of short synthetic oligomers for analytical purposes. Ligand screening may be used in the search of possible new therapeutic agents. Demanding assay design and challenging interpretation of data requires multidisclipinary knowledge. The implement of mass spectrometry to structural studies of ribonucleic acids is probably most efficiently conducted in specialist groups consisting of researchers from various fields of science.

DNA-bound transcription factor complexes analysed by mass-spectrometry: binding of novel proteins to the human c-fos SRE and related sequences

Transcription factors control eukaryotic polymerase II function by influencing the recruitment of multiprotein complexes to promoters and their subsequent integrated function. The complexity of the functional ‘transcriptosome’ has necessitated biochemical fractionation and subsequent protein sequencing on a grand scale to identify individual components. As a consequence, much is now known of the basal transcription complex. In contrast, less is known about the complexes formed at distal promoter elements. The c-fos SRE, for example, is known to bind Serum Response Factor (SRF) and ternary complex factors such as Elk-1. Their interaction with other factors at the SRE is implied but, to date, none have been identified. Here we describe the use of mass-spectrometric sequencing to identify six proteins, SRF, Elk-1 and four novel proteins, captured on SRE duplexes linked to magnetic beads. This approach is generally applicable to the characterisation of nucleic acid-bound protein complexes and the post-translational modification of their components.

La PCSK9 humaine, une molécule aux multiples facettes métaboliques et une cible thérapeutique prometteuse : études de régulation in vitro et in vivo

La proprotéine convertase subtilisine/kexine-9 (PCSK9) a été identifiée comme le troisième locus impliqué dans l’hypercholestérolémie autosome dominante (ADH). Les deux autres gènes impliqués dans l’ADH encodent le récepteur des lipoprotéines de faible densité (LDLR) et l’apolipoprotéine B. La PCSK9 est une convertase qui favorise la dégradation du LDLR dans les hépatocytes et augmente le niveau plasmatique de cholestérol des LDL (LDL-C). Les mutations « gain de fonction » de la PCSK9 sont associées à un phénotype d’hypercholestérolémie familiale, tandis que les variantes « perte de fonction » sont associées à un LDL-C réduit et à un risque coronarien plus faible. Pour élucider le rôle physiologique de la PCSK9, nous avons étudié sa régulation génique. En utilisant le RT-PCR quantitatif dans des hépatocytes humains, nous avons analysé la régulation de PCSK9 sous différentes conditions modulant l’expression des gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme du cholestérol. Nous avons démontré que l’expression de la PCSK9 était induite par les statines de manière dose-dépendante et que cette induction était abolie par le mévalonate. De plus, le promoteur de PCSK9 contenait deux motifs conservés pour la régulation par le cholestérol : le sterol regulatory element (SRE) et un site Sp1. La PCSK9 circule dans le plasma sous des formes mature et clivée par la furine. Grâce à notre anticorps polyclonal, nous avons mis au point un test ELISA mesurant la PCSK9 plasmatique totale. Une étude transversale a évalué les concentrations plasmatiques de PCSK9 chez des sujets sains et hypercholestérolémiques, traités ou non par des statines ou une combinaison statine/ezetimibe. Chez 254 sujets sains, la valeur moyenne de PCSK9 (écart-type) était de 89,5 (31,9) µg/L. La concentration plasmatique de la PCSK9 corrélait avec celle de cholestérol total, du LDL-C, des triglycérides (TG), de la glycémie à jeun, l’âge et l’indice de masse corporelle. Le séquençage de PCSK9 chez des sujets aux extrêmes de la distribution des concentrations de PCSK9 de notre cohorte a révélé la présence d’une nouvelle variation « perte de fonction » : R434W. Chez 200 patients hypercholestérolémiques, la concentration de PCSK9 était plus élevée que chez les sujets sains (P<0,04). Elle a augmenté avec une dose croissante de statine (P<0,001), et a augmenté encore plus suite à l’ajout d’ezetimibe (P<0,001). Chez les patients traités, ceux présentant une hypercholestérolémie familiale (HF; due à une mutation du LDLR) avaient des concentrations plus élevées de PCSK9 que les non-HF (P<0,005), et la réduction de LDL-C corrélait positivement avec la concentration de PCSK9 atteinte de la même manière dans les deux sous-catégories (P<0,02 et P<0,005, respectivement). Par ailleurs, une incubation des cellules HepG2 (hépatocytes) et Caco-2 (entérocytes) avec de l’ezetimibe a provoqué une augmentation de l’ARNm de PCSK9 et de NPC1L1 de 1,5 à 2 fois (P<0,05), mais aucune variation significative de PCSK9 sécrétée n’a été observée, suggérant que ces lignées cellulaires ne sont pas un modèle idéal. Nous avons également mesuré le niveau de PCSK9 chez 1 739 Canadiens-français âgés de 9, 13 et 16 ans. La valeur moyenne (écart-type) de PCSK9 dans cette cohorte était de 84,7 (24,7) µg/L, légèrement plus basse que dans la cohorte d’adultes (89,5 (31,9) µg/L). Chez les garçons, la PCSK9 circulante diminuait avec l’âge, tandis que c’était l’inverse chez les filles. Il y avait des associations positives et significatives entre la PCSK9 et la glycémie à jeun, l’insulinémie, le HOMA-IR, et les paramètres lipidiques (TC, LDL-C, TG, HDL-C, apoAI et apoB). Dans l’analyse multivariée, une hausse de 10% de l’insulinémie à jeun était associée à une augmentation de 1 à 2% de PCSK9. La régulation de PCSK9 est typique de celle d’un gène impliqué dans le métabolisme des lipoprotéines et est probablement la cible du facteur de transcription «sterol regulatory element-binding protein » (SREBP-2). La concentration plasmatique de la PCSK9 est associée avec l’âge, le sexe, et de multiples marqueurs métaboliques chez les enfants et les adultes. La détection de la PCSK9 circulante chez les sujets HF et non-HF signifie que ce test ELISA spécifique à PCSK9 pourrait servir à suivre la réponse à la thérapie chez un grand éventail de sujets. PCSK9 semble être une cible thérapeutique prometteuse dans le traitement de l’hypercholestérolémie et de la maladie cardiovasculaire.

Structural elucidation and antisense properties of a sugar-modified DNA analogue

Antisense oligonucleotides deserve great attention as potential drug candidates for the treatment of genetic disorders. For example, muscle dystrophy can be treated successfully in mice by antisense-induced exon skipping in the pre-mRNA coding for the structural protein dystrophin in muscle cells. For this purpose a sugar- and backbone-modified DNA analogue was designed, in which a tricyclic ring system substitutes the deoxyribose. These chemical modifications stabilize the dimers formed with the targeted RNA relative to native nucleic acid duplexes and increase the biostability of the antisense oligonucleotide. While evading enzymatic degradation constitutes an essential property of antisense oligonucleotides for therapeutic application, it renders the oligonucleotide inaccessible to biochemical sequencing techniques and requires the development of alternative methods based on mass spectrometry. The set of sequences studied includes tcDNA oligonucleotides ranging from 10 to 15 nucleotides in length as well as their hybrid duplexes with DNA and RNA complements. All samples were analyzed on a LTQ Orbitrap XL instrument equipped with a nano-electrospray source. For tandem mass spectrometric experiments collision-induced dissociation was performed, using helium as collision gas. Mass spectrometric sequencing of tcDNA oligomers manifests the applicability of the technique to substrates beyond the scope of enzyme-based methods. Sequencing requires the formation of characteristic backbone fragments, which take the form of a-B- and w-ions in the product ion spectra of tcDNA. These types of product ions are typically associated with unmodified DNA, which suggests a DNA-like fragmentation mechanism in tcDNA. The loss of nucleobases constitutes the second prevalent dissociation pathway observed in tcDNA. Comparison of partially and fully modified oligonucleotides indicates a pronounced impact of the sugar-moiety on the base loss. As this event initiates cleavage of the backbone, the presented results provide new mechanistic insights into the fragmentation of DNA in the gas-phase. The influence of the sugar-moiety on the dissociation extends to tcDNA:DNA and tcDNA:RNA hybrid duplexes, where base loss was found to be much more prominent from sugar-modified oligonucleotides than from their natural complements. Further prominent dissociation channels are strand separation and backbone cleavage of the single strands, as well as the ejection of backbone fragments from the intact duplex. The latter pathway depends noticeably on the base sequence. Moreover, it gives evidence of the high stability of the hybrid dimers, and thus directly reflects the affinity of tcDNA for its target in the cell. As the cellular target of tcDNA is a pre-mRNA, the structure was designed to discriminate RNA from DNA complements, which could be demonstrated by mass spectrometric experiments.

Nup93, a Vertebrate Homologue of Yeast Nic96p, Forms a Complex with a Novel 205-kDa Protein and Is Required for Correct Nuclear Pore Assembly

Yeast and vertebrate nuclear pores display significant morphological similarity by electron microscopy, but sequence similarity between the respective proteins has been more difficult to observe. Herein we have identified a vertebrate nucleoporin, Nup93, in both human and Xenopus that has proved to be an evolutionarily related homologue of the yeast nucleoporin Nic96p. Polyclonal antiserum to human Nup93 detects corresponding proteins in human, rat, and Xenopus cells. Immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy localize vertebrate Nup93 at the nuclear basket and at or near the nuclear entry to the gated channel of the pore. Immunoprecipitation from both mammalian and Xenopus cell extracts indicates that a small fraction of Nup93 physically interacts with the nucleoporin p62, just as yeast Nic96p interacts with the yeast p62 homologue. However, a large fraction of vertebrate Nup93 is extracted from pores and is also present in Xenopus egg extracts in complex with a newly discovered 205-kDa protein. Mass spectrometric sequencing of the human 205-kDa protein reveals that this protein is encoded by an open reading frame, KIAAO225, present in the human database. The putative human nucleoporin of 205 kDa has related sequence homologues in Caenorhabditis elegans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. To analyze the role of the Nup93 complex in the pore, nuclei were assembled that lack the Nup93 complex after immunodepletion of a Xenopus nuclear reconstitution extract. The Nup93-complex–depleted nuclei are clearly defective for correct nuclear pore assembly. From these experiments, we conclude that the vertebrate and yeast pore have significant homology in their functionally important cores and that, with the identification of Nup93 and the 205-kDa protein, we have extended the knowledge of the nearest-neighbor interactions of this core in both yeast and vertebrates.

Automated de novo sequencing of proteins by tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry

A de novo sequencing program for proteins is described that uses tandem MS data from electron capture dissociation and collisionally activated dissociation of electrosprayed protein ions. Computer automation is used to convert the fragment ion mass values derived from these spectra into the most probable protein sequence, without distinguishing Leu/Ile. Minimum human input is necessary for the data reduction and interpretation. No extra chemistry is necessary to distinguish N- and C-terminal fragments in the mass spectra, as this is determined from the electron capture dissociation data. With parts-per-million mass accuracy (now available by using higher field Fourier transform MS instruments), the complete sequences of ubiquitin (8.6 kDa) and melittin (2.8 kDa) were predicted correctly by the program. The data available also provided 91% of the cytochrome c (12.4 kDa) sequence (essentially complete except for the tandem MS-resistant region K13–V20 that contains the cyclic heme). Uncorrected mass values from a 6-T instrument still gave 86% of the sequence for ubiquitin, except for distinguishing Gln/Lys. Extensive sequencing of larger proteins should be possible by applying the algorithm to pieces of ≈10-kDa size, such as products of limited proteolysis.

DNA sequencing and genotyping by transcriptional synthesis of chain-terminated RNA ladders and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry

Sets of RNA ladders can be synthesized by transcription of a bacteriophage-encoded RNA polymerase using 3′-deoxynucleotides as chain terminators. These ladders can be used for sequencing of DNA. Using a nicked form of phage SP6 RNA polymerase in this study substantially enhanced yields of transcriptional sequencing ladders. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) of chain-terminated RNA ladders allowed DNA sequence determination of up to 56 nt. It is also demonstrated that A→G and C→T variations in heterozygous and homozygous samples can be unambiguously identified by the mass spectrometric analysis. As a step towards single-tube sequencing reactions, α-thiotriphosphate nucleotide analogs were used to overcome problems caused by chain terminator-independent, premature termination and by the small mass difference between natural pyrimidine nucleotides.

Attomole level protein sequencing by Edman degradation coupled with accelerator mass spectrometry

Edman degradation remains the primary method for determining the sequence of proteins. In this study, accelerator mass spectrometry was used to determine the N-terminal sequence of glutathione S-transferase at the attomole level with zeptomole precision using a tracer of 14C. The transgenic transferase was labeled by growing transformed Escherichia coli on [14C]glucose and purified by microaffinity chromatography. An internal standard of peptides on a solid phase synthesized to release approximately equal amounts of all known amino acids with each cycle were found to increase yield of gas phase sequencing reactions and subsequent semimicrobore HPLC as did a lactoglobulin carrier. This method is applicable to the sequencing of proteins from cell culture and illustrates a path to more general methods for determining N-terminal sequences with high sensitivity.

DNA sequencing by delayed extraction-matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) time of flight mass spectrometry was used to detect and order DNA fragments generated by Sanger dideoxy cycle sequencing. This was accomplished by improving the sensitivity and resolution of the MALDI method using a delayed ion extraction technique (DE-MALDI). The cycle sequencing chemistry was optimized to produce as much as 100 fmol of each specific dideoxy terminated fragment, generated from extension of a 13-base primer annealed on 40- and 50-base templates. Analysis of the resultant sequencing mixture by DE-MALDI identified the appropriate termination products. The technique provides a new non-gel-based method to sequence DNA which may ultimately have considerable speed advantages over traditional methodologies.