Spatial variation of climate and the impact of disturbances on local climate and forest recovery in northern Finland

The structure and function of northern ecosystems are strongly influenced by climate change and variability and by human-induced disturbances. The projected global change is likely to have a pronounced effect on the distribution and productivity of different species, generating large changes in the equilibrium at the tree-line. In turn, movement of the tree-line and the redistribution of species produce feedback to both the local and the regional climate. This research was initiated with the objective of examining the influence of natural conditions on the small-scale spatial variation of climate in Finnish Lapland, and to study the interaction and feedback mechanisms in the climate-disturbances-vegetation system near the climatological border of boreal forest. The high (1 km) resolution spatial variation of climate parameters over northern Finland was determined by applying the Kriging interpolation method that takes into account the effect of external forcing variables, i.e., geographical coordinates, elevation, sea and lake coverage. Of all the natural factors shaping the climate, the geographical position, local topography and altitude proved to be the determining ones. Spatial analyses of temperature- and precipitation-derived parameters based on a 30-year dataset (1971-2000) provide a detailed description of the local climate. Maps of the mean, maximum and minimum temperatures, the frost-free period and the growing season indicate that the most favourable thermal conditions exist in the south-western part of Lapland, around large water bodies and in the Kemijoki basin, while the coldest regions are in highland and fell Lapland. The distribution of precipitation is predominantly longitudinally dependent but with the definite influence of local features. The impact of human-induced disturbances, i.e., forest fires, on local climate and its implication for forest recovery near the northern timberline was evaluated in the Tuntsa area of eastern Lapland, damaged by a widespread forest fire in 1960 and suffering repeatedly-failed vegetation recovery since that. Direct measurements of the local climate and simulated heat and water fluxes indicated the development of a more severe climate and physical conditions on the fire-disturbed site. Removal of the original, predominantly Norway spruce and downy birch vegetation and its substitution by tundra vegetation has generated increased wind velocity and reduced snow accumulation, associated with a large variation in soil temperature and moisture and deep soil frost. The changed structural parameters of the canopy have determined changes in energy fluxes by reducing the latter over the tundra vegetation. The altered surface and soil conditions, as well as the evolved severe local climate, have negatively affected seedling growth and survival, leading to more unfavourable conditions for the reproduction of boreal vegetation and thereby causing deviations in the regional position of the timberline. However it should be noted that other factors, such as an inadequate seed source or seedbed, the poor quality of the soil and the intensive logging of damaged trees could also exacerbate the poor tree regeneration. In spite of the failed forest recovery at Tunsta, the position and composition of the timberline and tree-line in Finnish Lapland may also benefit from present and future changes in climate. The already-observed and the projected increase in temperature, the prolonged growing season, as well as changes in the precipitation regime foster tree growth and new regeneration, resulting in an advance of the timberline and tree-line northward and upward. This shift in the distribution of vegetation might be decelerated or even halted by local topoclimatic conditions and by the expected increase in the frequency of disturbances.

Optical Studies of the Antarctic Glacio-Oceanic System

The Antarctic system comprises of the continent itself, Antarctica, and the ocean surrounding it, the Southern Ocean. The system has an important part in the global climate due to its size, its high latitude location and the negative radiation balance of its large ice sheets. Antarctica has also been in focus for several decades due to increased ultraviolet (UV) levels caused by stratospheric ozone depletion, and the disintegration of its ice shelves. In this study, measurements were made during three Austral summers to study the optical properties of the Antarctic system and to produce radiation information for additional modeling studies. These are related to specific phenomena found in the system. During the summer of 1997-1998, measurements of beam absorption and beam attenuation coefficients, and downwelling and upwelling irradiance were made in the Southern Ocean along a S-N transect at 6°E. The attenuation of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was calculated and used together with hydrographic measurements to judge whether the phytoplankton in the investigated areas of the Southern Ocean are light limited. By using the Kirk formula the diffuse attenuation coefficient was linked to the absorption and scattering coefficients. The diffuse attenuation coefficients (Kpar) for PAR were found to vary between 0.03 and 0.09 1/m. Using the values for KPAR and the definition of the Sverdrup critical depth, the studied Southern Ocean plankton systems were found not to be light limited. Variabilities in the spectral and total albedo of snow were studied in the Queen Maud Land region of Antarctica during the summers of 1999-2000 and 2000-2001. The measurement areas were the vicinity of the South African Antarctic research station SANAE 4, and a traverse near the Finnish Antarctic research station Aboa. The midday mean total albedos for snow were between 0.83, for clear skies, and 0.86, for overcast skies, at Aboa and between 0.81 and 0.83 for SANAE 4. The mean spectral albedo levels at Aboa and SANAE 4 were very close to each other. The variations in the spectral albedos were due more to differences in ambient conditions than variations in snow properties. A Monte-Carlo model was developed to study the spectral albedo and to develop a novel nondestructive method to measure the diffuse attenuation coefficient of snow. The method was based on the decay of upwelling radiation moving horizontally away from a source of downwelling light. This was assumed to have a relation to the diffuse attenuation coefficient. In the model, the attenuation coefficient obtained from the upwelling irradiance was higher than that obtained using vertical profiles of downwelling irradiance. The model results were compared to field measurements made on dry snow in Finnish Lapland and they correlated reasonably well. Low-elevation (below 1000 m) blue-ice areas may experience substantial melt-freeze cycles due to absorbed solar radiation and the small heat conductivity in the ice. A two-dimensional (x-z) model has been developed to simulate the formation and water circulation in the subsurface ponds. The model results show that for a physically reasonable parameter set the formation of liquid water within the ice can be reproduced. The results however are sensitive to the chosen parameter values, and their exact values are not well known. Vertical convection and a weak overturning circulation is generated stratifying the fluid and transporting warmer water downward, thereby causing additional melting at the base of the pond. In a 50-year integration, a global warming scenario mimicked by a decadal scale increase of 3 degrees per 100 years in air temperature, leads to a general increase in subsurface water volume. The ice did not disintegrate due to the air temperature increase after the 50 year integration.

Snow cover models in operational watershed forecasting

Yhteenveto: Lumimallit vesistöjen ennustemalleissa

Lumen sulamisesta ja sulamiskauden vesitaseesta Lammin Pääjärvellä 1970-72

English summary: On snowmelt and water balance during snowmelt period in Pääjärvi representative basin in 1970-72

Overwintering ecology of northern field layer plants : snow and photosynthesis in Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.

Winter is a significant period for the seasonality of northern plants, but is often overlooked when studying the interactions of plants and their environment. This study focuses on the effects of overwintering conditions, including warm winter periods, snow, and snowmelt on boreal and sub-Arctic field layer plants. Wintertime photosynthesis and related physiological factors of evergreen dwarf shrubs, particularly of Vaccinium vitis-idaea, are emphasised. The work combines experiments both in the field and in growth chambers with measurements in natural field conditions. Evergreen dwarf shrubs are predominantly covered by snow in the winter. The protective snow cover provides favourable conditions for photosynthesis, especially during the spring before snowmelt. The results of this study indicate that photosynthesis occurs under the snow in V. vitis-idaea. The light response of photosynthesis determined in field conditions during the period of snow cover shows that positive net CO2 exchange is possible under the snow in the prevailing light and temperature. Photosynthetic capacity increases readily during warm periods in winter and the plants are thus able to replenish carbohydrate reserves lost through respiration. Exposure to low temperatures in combination with high light following early snowmelt can set back photosynthesis as sustained photoprotective measures are activated and photodamage begins to build up. Freezing may further decrease the photosynthetic capacity. The small-scale distribution of many field layer plants, including V. vitis-idaea and other dwarf shrubs, correlates with the snow distribution in a forest. The results of this study indicate that there are species-specific differences in the snow depth affinity of the field and ground layer species. Events and processes taking place in winter can have a profound effect on the overall performance of plants and on the interactions between plants and their environment. Understanding the processes involved in the overwintering of plants is increasingly important as the wintertime climate in the north is predicted to change in the future.

Silta- ja rumpurakenteiden aukkomitoitus

Ilmastomallien mukaan sademäärät kasvavat kaikkialla suomessa. Sadeolojen ennustetaan äärevöityvän eli yhtäältä esiintyy pitkiä kuivia kausia ja toisaalta rankkasateet voimistuvat ja toistuvat nykyistä useammin. Etelä-Suomessa talviaika lyhenee ja lumipeite jää ohuemmaksi. Vesisateiden osuus kokonaissadannasta kasvaa ja tämä lisää talviaikaisia valuntoja. Etelä-Suomessa lumipeitteen ohenemisen vuoksi sulamisvesistä syntyvä kevätylivirtaama jää nykyistä pienemmäksi ja vuotuinen ylivirtaama-ajankohta sattuu useammin muuksi kuin kevääksi. Pohjois-Suomessa talviaikaiset sateet ovat tulevaisuudessakin suurimmaksi osaksi lunta. Vaikka lumipeitteinen aika lyhenee sielläkin, sademäärien kasvu saattaa lisätä lumipeitteen vesiarvoja ja kasvattaa sulamisvesien aiheuttamia kevätylivirtaamia (RATU, Water Adapt). Tämä korostaa silta- ja rumpuaukkojen riittävän mitoittamisen tärkeyttä. Useimmat ELY-keskukset ovat luopuneet aukkolausuntojen antamisesta. Oppaan tarkoituksena on antaa aukkomitoituksia tekeville henkilöille tietoa laskentaperusteista ja hyväksi koetuista toimintatavoista. Oppaan avulla on mahdollista luoda yhtenäinen käytäntö silta- ja rumpuaukkojen mitoituksessa. Samalla sen toivotaan korostavan hyvän suunnittelun merkitystä siltojen ja rumpujen rakentamisessa. Tämän oppaan pohjana on ollut siltojen ja rumpujen mitoitusta koskeva osa vesihallituksen vuoden 1986 julkaisusta ”Maankuivatuksen suunnittelu I osa”, joka on korvattu vuonna 2015 päivitetyllä julkaisulla ”Maan-kuivatuksen ja kastelun suunnittelu”. Opas sisältää tietoa sillan ja rummun vesiaukon mitoittamisesta. Suosittelemalla nykyistä harvemmin esiintyviä mitoitusvirtaamia pyritään pienentämään riskejä. Ohjeita aukon aiheuttaman padotuksen määrittämiseksi on selkeytetty. Oppaassa on kiinnitetty aiempaa enemmän huomiota myös aukkorakenteiden haitallisten ympäristövaikutusten ehkäisyyn. Taustalla on yhteiseurooppalaisen vesipolitiikan vaatimus vapaasta ja yhtenäisestä uomajatkumosta. Sen tila ei voi olla ekologisesti hyvä, jos silta- ja rumpurakenteet katkaisevat jatkumon. Suomen ympäristökeskus on julkaissut oppaan alun perin vuonna 2007 nimellä ”Silta- ja rumpulausunnot – Luonnos oppaaksi”. Julkaisun tekemiseen on osallistunut asiantuntijoita Suomen ympäristökeskuksesta ja ELY-keskuksista sekä konsulttina yli-insinööri Raimo K. Nissinen. Peruskuivatuksen ja ojitustoimitusten toimintamalliryhmä on päivittänyt opasta ottaen huomioon vuonna 2012 voimaan tulleen vesilainsäädännön uudistuksen (587 / 2011) sekä aluehallinnossa ja ympäristöhallinnossa tapahtuneet