Zur Rolle der Antigendosis in IgE-vermittelten Immunantworten und der allergischen Atemwegsentzündung

Die Verabreichung von hohen Antigendosen im Rahmen der allergenspezifischen Immuntherapie (SIT) resultiert in der Induktion einer allergenspezifischen Toleranz in sensibilisierten Patienten. Vorangegangene Studien der Klinischen Forschergruppe Allergie identifizierten CD4-CD8- doppelt-negative T-Zellen (dnTZ), welche nach wiederholter intraperitonealer Injektion von hohen Dosen (HD) des an das Adjuvans Aluminiumhydroxid adsorbierten Antigens Keyhole Limpet Hemocyanin in Mäusen induziert wurden, als potente Suppressorzellen für die IgE-Produktion. Mäuse, die hingegen mit niedrigen Dosen (LD) desselben Antigens behandelt wurden, entwickelten eine starke, persistierende IgE-Immunantwort. rnIm Fokus meiner Doktorarbeit stand die phänotypische Charakterisierung der dnTZ aus HD-Mäusen sowie die Aufklärung möglicher inhibitorischer Wirkmechanismen. In Erweiterung der bisherigen Arbeiten und in Anlehnung an die klinische Praxis bei der Durchführung der SIT habe ich bei meinen Untersuchungen die subkutane Injektion ohne Adjuvans als alternative Applikationsroute verwendet. In meinen Studien konnte ich durch die zusätzliche Verwendung des klinisch relevanten Allergens Ovalbumin die Allgemeingültigkeit des Konzepts der antigendosisabhängigen Regulation der IgE- Produktion durch dnTZ verifizieren. Die Vakzinierung mit hohen Antigendosen verhinderte die Ausbildung einer IgE-Produktion in antigenspezifischer Weise. HD- Mäuse wiesen in vitro eine geringere Aktivierung von TH2-Zellen als LD-Mäuse auf. Im Mausmodell der allergischen Atemwegsentzündung wiesen HD-Mäuse eine reduzierte Atemwegsreaktivität sowie eine geringere pulmonale TH2-Zytokin- produktion auf. rnIch konnte zudem tendenziell eine leicht erhöhte Anzahl von dnTZ in HD-Mäusen messen. Die in HD-Mäusen induzierten dnTZ habe ich durchflusszytometrisch charakterisiert, konnte jedoch keinen eindeutigen Marker für suppressive dnTZ identifizieren. In einem adoptiven Transferexperiment war eine T-Zellpopulation von HD-Mäusen aus der γδ-T-Zell-Rezeptor-tragende T-Zellen depletiert worden waren, ähnlich wie die Ausgangs-T-Zellpopulation in der Lage die IgE-Produktion in den Rezipienten zu inhibieren, was darauf schließen lässt, dass die untersuchten regulatorischen dnTZ einen αβ-T-Zell-Rezeptor exprimieren. rn

Untersuchungen zum Einfluss des HMG-CoA-Reduktase-Inhibitors Lovastatin auf die Toxizität ionisierender Strahlung sowie des Anthrazyklinderivats Doxorubicin im Mausmodell

Hintergund: HMG-CoA-Reduktase-Inhibitoren (Statine) sind klinisch etablierte Cholesterinsenker. Über die Inhibition der intrinsischen Cholesterinbiosynthese hinaus zeigen sie sogenannte pleiotrope biologische Effekte. Ein Großteil dieser Wirkungen wird auf die Inhibition kleiner Ras homologer GTPasen (Rho GTPasen) zurückgeführt. In vitro schützt das Statinderivat Lovastatin (Lova) primäre humane Endothelzellen vor der Zytotoxizität von ionisierender Strahlung (IR) und dem Krebsmedikament Doxorubicin (Doxo). Zielsetzung: Die Relevanz dieser Befunde für ein in vivo Mausmodell sollte in der vorliegenden Arbeit überprüft werden. Dafür wurden BALB/c-Mäuse mit IR oder Doxo behandelt und der Einfluss einer Kobehandlung mit Lova auf verschiedene Toxizitätsendpunkte untersucht (24 h nach einer einzelnen hohen Dosis IR (i), 14 Tage nach zwei geringen Dosen IR (ii), 48 h nach einer einzelnen hohen Dosis Doxo (iii), sowie 8 Tage nach drei niedrigen Dosen Doxo (iv)). Eine mögliche gleichzeitige Protektion von Tumorzellen durch die Statingabe wurde in einem Xenotransplantationsexperiment überprüft (v), in dem das gleiche Behandlungsschema wie bei iv angewendet wurde. Ergebnisse: Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Statinbehandlung Normalgewebe vor Doxo- und IR-induzierter Toxizität schützt, ohne gleichzeitig protektiv auf transformierte Zellen zu wirken. Dieser Effekt ist wahrscheinlich von einer Inhibition der kleinen GTPasen Rac1 und RhoA abhängig und einer daraus folgenden Modifizierung der DNA-Schadensantwort. i: Die Statinvorbehandlung der Mäuse hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Bildung von initialen IR-induzierten DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen (DSB) in der Leber. Die Lova-Behandlung wirkte sich jedoch auf IR-induzierte Stressantworten aus, was sich in einer Minderung der Expression von Inflammations- und Fibrosesurrogatmarkern in Leber und Darm widerspiegelte. ii: In der Lunge der Tiere wurde ein Anstieg von molekularen Inflammations- und Fibrosesurrogatmarkern detektiert, der bei Statinkobehandlung ausblieb. Zudem verhinderte die Kobehandlung mit Lova eine IR-induzierte Abnahme der Thrombozytenzahl, ohne sich auf die durch IR verringerte Leukozytenzahl im Blut auszuwirken. iii: Die Verabreichung einer hohen Dosis Doxo induzierte DSB-Formation in der Leber. Die Statinvorbehandlung reduzierte deren Menge um ca. 50 %. Dieser genoprotektive Effekt war unabhängig von der Entstehung reaktiver Sauerstoffspezies sowie einer Änderung des Doxo-Imports oder Exports. Die Expression von proinflammatorischen und profibrotischen Genen fiel besonders in der Leber und im Herzen durch die Lova-Kobehandlung geringer aus, als in der nur mit Doxo behandelten Gruppe. Zudem verringerte Lova die durch Doxo induzierte Hochregulation von für den AP1-Komplex kodierenden Genen sowie von Zellzykluskontrollfaktoren. Die Lova-Vorbehandlung führte darüber hinaus im Herzen zu einem reduzierten mRNA-Spiegel der Topoisomerasen II α und β. iv: Es konnten schwere Herz- und Leberschäden detektiert werden (gemessen an Gldh-, Gpt- sowie cTn-I-Serumkonzentrationen), die bei einer Kobehandlung mit dem Statin nicht auftraten. Die Lova-Kobehandlung verhinderte außerdem eine durch die Doxo-Behandlung verringerte Leukozytenzahl. Molekulare Marker für frühe fibrotische Ereignisse, sowie für Inflammation und Hypertrophie waren in der Leber und im Herzen nach der Doxo-Behandlung erhöht. Das Statin war auch hier in der Lage, diese toxischen Wirkungen des Anthrazyklins zu mindern. Auch die Doxo-induzierte Expression von Surrogatmarkern für Zellantworten auf oxidativen Stress wurde in der Leber abgeschwächt. In der Leber und im Herzen wiesen die mit Doxo behandelten Tiere höhere mRNA Spiegel von an Zellzykluskontrolle beteiligten Faktoren sowie von DNA-Reparatur und Fremdstoffmetabolismus assoziierten Genen auf. Am stärksten wurde die Expression von Topoisomerase II alpha - ein molekularer Marker für Zellproliferation und bedeutsame Zielstruktur von Doxo - in der Leber hochreguliert. Die Statin-Kobehandlung verhinderte all diese Doxo-induzierten Expressionsänderungen. Im Gegensatz zur Leber wurde die Top2a-mRNA Menge im Herzen durch die Doxo-Applikation reduziert. Auch hier bewirkte die Kobehandlung mit dem Statin, dass die Expression nahe dem Kontrollniveau blieb. v: Die Kobehandlung mit Lova führte zu keinem Schutz der Tumorzellen vor Doxo, sondern erhöhte sogar dessen antineoplastisches Potential.rnFazit: Die Erkenntnisse aus vorhergegangenen in vitro Versuchen konnten zum großen Teil auf die in vivo Situation im Mausmodell übertragen werden. Sie stehen im Einklang mit Ergebnissen anderer Gruppen, welche die Inhibition kleiner GTPasen mit einer geringeren, durch zytotoxische Substanzen induzierten, Inflammation und Fibrose korrelieren konnten. Eine Kobehandlung mit Lova während einer Krebstherapie erscheint somit als vielversprechende Möglichkeit Doxo- oder IR-induzierte Nebenwirkungen auf Normalgewebe zu mildern.

Experimental treatment of Neospora caninum-infected mice with the arylimidamide DB750 and the thiazolide nitazoxanide

The cationic arylimidamide DB750 and the thiazolide nitazoxanide had been shown earlier to be effective against Neospora caninum tachyzoites in vitro with an IC(50) of 160nM and 4.23muM, respectively. In this study, we have investigated the effects of DB750 and nitazoxanide treatments of experimentally infected Balb/c mice, by applying the drugs either through the oral or the intraperitoneal route. In experiment 1, administration of DB750 (2mg/kg/day) and nitazoxanide (150mg/kg/day) started already 3 days prior to experimental infection of mice with 2x10(6) tachyzoites. Following infection, the drugs were further administrated daily for a period of 2 weeks, either orally or intraperitoneally. Intraperitoneal injection of DB750 was well tolerated by the mice, but treatment with nitazoxanide resulted in death of all mice within 3 days. Upon intraperitoneal application of DB750, the cerebral parasite load was significantly reduced compared to all other groups, while oral application of DB750 and nitazoxanide were not as effective, and resulted in significant weight loss. In experiment 2, mice were infected with 2x10(6) tachyzoites and at 2 weeks post-infection, DB750 (2mg/kg/day) was applied by intraperitoneal injections for 14 days. In the DB750-treated group, only 2 out of 12 mice succumbed to infection, compared to 7 out of 12 mice in the placebo-group. DB750 treatment also resulted in significantly reduced cerebral parasite burden, and reduced numbers of viable tachyzoites. Our data suggest that DB750 exerted its activity also after crossing the blood-brain barrier, and that this class of compounds could be promising for the control of N. caninum-associated disease.

Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition selectively attenuates bone morphogenetic protein-6 synthesis and bone formation during guided tissue regeneration in a rat model

OBJECTIVES: Bone formation during guided tissue regeneration is a tightly regulated process involving cells, extracellular matrix and growth factors. The aims of this study were (i) to examine the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) during bone regeneration and (ii) the effects of selective COX-2 inhibition on osseous regeneration and growth factor expression in the rodent femur model. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A standardized transcortical defect of 5 x 1.5 mm was prepared in the femur of 12 male rats and a closed half-cylindrical titanium chamber was placed over the defect. The expression of COX-2 and of platelet-derived growth factor-B (PDGF-B), bone morphogenetic protein-6 (BMP-6) and insulin-like growth factor-I/II (IGF-I/II) was analyzed at Days 3, 7, 21 and 28 semiquantitatively by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. The effects of COX-2 inhibition by intraperitoneal injection of NS-398 (3 mg/kg/day) were analyzed in five additional animals sacrificed at Day 14. RESULTS: Histomorphometry revealed that new bone formation occurred in the cortical defect area as well as in the supracortical region, i.e. region within the chamber by Day 7 and increased through Day 28. Immunohistochemical evidence of COX-2 and PDGF-B levels were observed early (i.e. Day 3) and decreased rapidly by Day 7. BMP-6 expression was maximal at Day 3 and slowly declined by Day 28. In contrast, IGF-I/II expression gradually increased during the 28-day period. Systemic administration NS-398 caused a statistically significant reduction (P<0.05) in new bone formation (25-30%) and was associated with a statistically significant reduction in BMP-6 protein and mRNA expression (50% and 65% at P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively). PDGF-B mRNA or protein expression was not affected by NS-398 treatment. CONCLUSION: COX-2 inhibition resulted in reduced BMP-6 expression and impaired osseous regeneration suggesting an important role for COX-2-induced signaling in BMP synthesis and new bone formation.

Gamma-tocopherol supplementation inhibits protein nitration and ascorbate oxidation in rats with inflammation

Gamma-tocopherol (gammaT) complements alpha-tocopherol (alphaT) by trapping reactive nitrogen oxides to form a stable adduct, 5-nitro-gammaT [Christen et al., PNAS 94:3217-3222; 1997]. This observation led to the current investigation in which we studied the effects of gammaT supplementation on plasma and tissue vitamin C, vitamin E, and protein nitration before and after zymosan-induced acute peritonitis. Male Fischer 344 rats were fed for 4 weeks with either a normal chow diet with basal 32 mg alphaT/kg, or the same diet supplemented with approximately 90 mg d-gammaT/kg. Supplementation resulted in significantly higher levels of gammaT in plasma, liver, and kidney of control animals without affecting alphaT, total alphaT+gammaT or vitamin C. Intraperitoneal injection of zymosan caused a marked increase in 3-nitrotyrosine and a profound decline in vitamin C in all tissues examined. Supplementation with gammaT significantly inhibited protein nitration and ascorbate oxidation in the kidney, as indicated by the 29% and 56% reduction of kidney 3-nitrotyrosine and dehydroascorbate, respectively. Supplementation significantly attenuated inflammation-induced loss of vitamin C in the plasma (38%) and kidney (20%). Zymosan-treated animals had significantly higher plasma and tissue gammaT than nontreated pair-fed controls, and the elevation of gammaT was strongly accentuated by the supplementation. In contrast, alphaT did not significantly change in response to zymosan treatment. In untreated control animals, gammaT supplementation lowered basal levels of 3-nitrotyrosine in the kidney and buffered the starvation-induced changes in vitamin C in all tissues examined. Our study provides the first in vivo evidence that in rats with high basal amounts of alphaT, a moderate gammaT supplementation attenuates inflammation-mediated damage, and spares vitamin C during starvation-induced stress without affecting alphaT.

Analysis of plasma tocopherols alpha, gamma, and 5-nitro-gamma in rats with inflammation by HPLC coulometric detection

Reactive nitrogen oxide species (RNOS) have been implicated as effector molecules in inflammatory diseases. There is emerging evidence that gamma-tocopherol (gammaT), the major form of vitamin E in the North American diet, may play an important role in these diseases. GammaT scavenges RNOS such as peroxynitrite by forming a stable adduct, 5-nitro-gammaT (NGT). Here we describe a convenient HPLC method for the simultaneous determination of NGT, alphaT, and gammaT in blood plasma and other tissues. Coulometric detection of NGT separated on a deactivated reversed-phase column was linear over a wide range of concentrations and highly sensitive (approximately 10 fmol detection limit). NGT extracted from blood plasma of 15-week-old Fischer 344 rats was in the low nM range, representing approximately 4% of gammaT. Twenty-four h after intraperitoneal injection of zymosan, plasma NGT levels were 2-fold higher compared to fasted control animals when adjusted to gammaT or corrected for total neutral lipids, while alpha- and gammaT levels remained unchanged. These results demonstrate that nitration of gammaT is increased under inflammatory conditions and highlight the importance of RNOS reactions in the lipid phase. The present HPLC method should be helpful in clarifying the precise physiological role of gammaT.

Inflammation and NO(X)-induced nitration: assay for 3-nitrotyrosine by HPLC with electrochemical detection

The identification of 15N-labeled 3-nitrotyrosine (NTyr) by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy in protein hydrolyzates from activated RAW 264.7 macrophages incubated with 15N-L-arginine confirms that nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is involved in the nitration of protein-bound tyrosine (Tyr). An assay is presented for NTyr that employs HPLC with tandem electrochemical and UV detection. The assay involves enzymatic hydrolysis of protein, acetylation, solvent extraction, O-deacetylation, and dithionite reduction to produce an analyte containing N-acetyl-3-aminotyrosine, an electrochemically active derivative of NTyr. We estimate the level of protein-bound NTyr in normal rat plasma to be approximately 0-1 residues per 10(6) Tyr with a detection limit of 0.5 per 10(7) Tyr when > 100 nmol of Tyr is analyzed and when precautions are taken to limit nitration artifacts. Zymosan-treated RAW 264.7 cells were shown to have an approximately 6-fold higher level of protein-bound NTyr compared with control cells and cells treated with N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine, an inhibitor of NOS. Intraperitoneal injection of F344 rats with zymosan led to a marked elevation in protein-bound NTyr to approximately 13 residues per 10(6) Tyr, an approximately 40-fold elevation compared with plasma protein of untreated rats; cotreatment with N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine inhibited the formation of NTyr in plasma protein from blood and peritoneal exudate by 69% and 53%, respectively. This assay offers a highly sensitive and quantitative approach for investigating the role of reactive byproducts of nitric oxide in the many pathological conditions and disease states associated with NO(X) exposure such as inflammation and smoking.

Effect of vascular targeting agent in rat tumor model: dynamic contrast-enhanced versus diffusion-weighted MR imaging

PURPOSE: To compare dynamic contrast material-enhanced magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and diffusion-weighted MR imaging for noninvasive evaluation of early and late effects of a vascular targeting agent in a rat tumor model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study protocol was approved by the local ethics committee for animal care and use. Thirteen rats with one rhabdomyosarcoma in each flank (26 tumors) underwent dynamic contrast-enhanced imaging and diffusion-weighted echo-planar imaging in a 1.5-T MR unit before intraperitoneal injection of combretastatin A4 phosphate and at early (1 and 6 hours) and later (2 and 9 days) follow-up examinations after the injection. Histopathologic examination was performed at each time point. The apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) of each tumor was calculated separately on the basis of diffusion-weighted images obtained with low b gradient values (ADC(low); b = 0, 50, and 100 sec/mm(2)) and high b gradient values (ADC(high); b = 500, 750, and 1000 sec/mm(2)). The difference between ADC(low) and ADC(high) was used as a surrogate measure of tissue perfusion (ADC(low) - ADC(high) = ADC(perf)). From the dynamic contrast-enhanced MR images, the volume transfer constant k and the initial slope of the contrast enhancement-time curve were calculated. For statistical analyses, a paired two-tailed Student t test and linear regression analysis were used. RESULTS: Early after administration of combretastatin, all perfusion-related parameters (k, initial slope, and ADC(perf)) decreased significantly (P < .001); at 9 days after combretastatin administration, they increased significantly (P < .001). Changes in ADC(perf) were correlated with changes in k (R(2) = 0.46, P < .001) and the initial slope (R(2) = 0.67, P < .001). CONCLUSION: Both dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging and diffusion-weighted MR imaging allow monitoring of perfusion changes induced by vascular targeting agents in tumors. Diffusion-weighted imaging provides additional information about intratumoral cell viability versus necrosis after administration of combretastatin.

Differential Effects on Survival, Humoral Immune Responses and Brain Lesions in Inbred BALB/C, CBA/CA, and C57BL/6 Mice Experimentally Infected with Neospora caninum Tachyzoites

C57BL/6, BALB/c, and CBA/Ca mouse strains with different MHC-I haplotypes were compared with respect to susceptibility to Neospora caninum infection. Groups of 5 mice received , , or tachyzoites of the NC-Liverpool isolate by intraperitoneal injection and were observed for disease symptoms. Humoral responses, splenocyte interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production, cerebral parasite loads, and histopathology were evaluated at human end points or the latest at 34 days postinfection (PI). The mortality rates in C57BL/6 mice were the highest, and relatively high levels of IgG1 antibodies were detected in those mice surviving till 34 days PI. In lymphocyte proliferation assays, spleen cells from C57BL6 mice stimulated with N. caninum antigen extract exhibited large variations in IFN-γ production. In BALB/c mice mortality was 0% at the lowest and 100% at the highest infection dose. Serologically they responded with high levels of both IgG2a and IgG1 subclasses, and lymphocyte proliferation assays of surviving mice yielded lower IFN-γ levels. CBA/Ca mice were the most resistant, with no animal succumbing to infection at a dose of and tachyzoites, but 100% mortality at tachyzoites. High IgG2a levels as well as increased IFN-γ in lymphocyte proliferation assays were measured in CBA/Ca mice infected with tachyzoites.

Tissue-specific metabolism of benzo[a]pyrene in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): a comparison between the liver and immune organs.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are immunotoxicants in fish. In mammals, phase I metabolites are believed to be critically involved in the immunotoxicity of PAHs. This mechanism has been suggested for fish as well. The present study investigates the capacity of immune organs (head kidney, spleen) of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, to metabolize the prototypic PAH, benzo[a]pyrene (BaP). To this end, we analyzed 1) the induction of enzymatic capacity measured as 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity in immune organs compared with liver, 2) the organ profiles of BaP metabolites generated in vivo, and 3) rates of microsomal BaP metabolite production in vitro. All measurements were done for control fish and for fish treated with an intraperitoneal injection of 15 mg BaP/kg body weight. In exposed trout, the liver, head kidney, and spleen contained similar levels of BaP, whereas EROD induction differed significantly between the organs, with liver showing the highest induction factor (132.8×), followed by head kidney (38.4×) and spleen (1.4×). Likewise, rates of microsomal metabolite formation experienced the highest induction in the liver of BaP-exposed trout, followed by the head kidney and spleen. Microsomes from control fish displayed tissue-specific differences in metabolite production. In contrast, in BaP-exposed trout, microsomes of all organs produced the potentially immunotoxic BaP-7,8-dihydrodiol as the main metabolite. The findings from this study show that PAHs, like BaP, are distributed into immune organs of fish and provide the first evidence that immune organs possess inducible PAH metabolism leading to in situ production of potentially immunotoxic PAH metabolites.

Dimethyloxalylglycine lyophilized onto bone substitutes increase vessel area in rat calvarial defects.

AIM Pharmacological inhibitors of prolyl hydroxylases, also termed hypoxia-mimetic agents (HMAs), when repeatedly injected can support angiogenesis and bone regeneration. However, the possible role of HMA loaded onto bone substitutes to support angiogenesis and bone regeneration under diabetic condition is unknown. The capacity of HMA loaded onto deproteinized bovine bone mineral (DBBM) to support angiogenesis and bone formation was examined in diabetic Wistar rats. METHODS Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. The HMA dimethyloxalylglycine (DMOG) and desferrioxamine (DFO) were lyophilized onto DBBM. Calvarial defects were created with a trephine drill and filled with the respective bone substitutes. After 4 weeks of healing, the animals were subjected to histological and histomorphometric analysis. RESULTS In this report, we provide evidence that DMOG loaded onto DBBM can support angiogenesis in vivo. Specifically, we show that DMOG increased the vessel area in the defect site to 2.4% ± 1.3% compared with controls 1.1% ± 0.48% (P = 0.012). There was a trend toward an increased vessel number in the defect site with 38.6 ± 17.4 and 31.0 ± 10.3 in the DMOG and the control group (P = 0.231). The increase in angiogenesis, however, did not translate into enhanced bone formation in the defect area with 9.2% ± 7.1% and 8.4% ± 5.6% in DMOG and control group, respectively. No significant changes were caused by DFO. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that DMOG loaded onto DBBM can support angiogenesis, but bone formation does not increase accordingly in a type 1 diabetic rat calvarial defect model at the indicated time point.

Buparvaquone is active against Neospora caninum in vitro and in experimentally infected mice.

The naphthoquinone buparvaquone is currently the only drug used against theileriosis. Here, the effects of buparvaquone were investigated in vitro and in an experimental mouse model for Neospora caninum infection. In 4-day proliferation assays, buparvaquone efficiently inhibited N. caninum tachyzoite replication (IC50 = 4.9 nM; IC100 = 100 nM). However, in the long term tachyzoites adapted and resumed proliferation in the presence of 100 nM buparvaquone after 20 days of cultivation. Parasiticidal activity was noted after 9 days of culture in 0.5 µM or 6 days in 1 µM buparvaquone. TEM of N. caninum infected fibroblasts treated with 1 µM buparvaquone showed that the drug acted rather slowly, and ultrastructural changes were evident only after 3-5 days of treatment, including severe alterations in the parasite cytoplasm, changes in the composition of the parasitophorous vacuole matrix and a diminished integrity of the vacuole membrane. Treatment of N. caninum infected mice with buparvaquone (100 mg/kg) either by intraperitoneal injection or gavage prevented neosporosis symptoms in 4 out of 6 mice in the intraperitoneally treated group, and in 6 out of 7 mice in the group receiving oral treatment. In the corresponding controls, all 6 mice injected intraperitoneally with corn oil alone died of acute neosporosis, and 4 out of 6 mice died in the orally treated control group. Assessment of infection intensities in the treatment groups showed that, compared to the drug treated groups, the controls showed a significantly higher parasite load in the lungs while cerebral parasite load was higher in the buparvaquone-treated groups. Thus, although buparvaquone did not eliminate the parasites infecting the CNS, the drug represents an interesting lead with the potential to eliminate, or at least diminish, fetal infection during pregnancy.

Ontogeny and regulation of interleukin-7 expressing thymic epithelial cells

T cell development is a multistage process of differentiation that depends on proper thymocyte-thymic epithelial cell (TEC) interactions. Epithelial cells in the thymus are organized in a three-dimensional network that provides support and signals for thymocyte maturation. Concurrently, proper TEC differentiation in the adult thymus relies on thymocyte-derived signals. TECs produce interleukin-7 (IL-7), a non-redundant cytokine that promotes the survival, differentiation, and proliferation of thymocytes. We have identified IL-7 expressing TECs throughout ontogeny and in the adult thymus by in situ hybridization analysis. IL-7 expression is initiated in the thymic fated domain of the thymic primordium by embryonic day 11.5, in a Foxn1 independent pathway. Marked changes occur in the localization and regulation of IL-7 expressing TECs during development. Whereas IL-7 expressing TECs are present throughout the early thymic rudiment, the majority of IL-7 producing TECs are concentrated in the adult thymic medulla. By analyzing mouse strains that sustain blocks at different stages of thymocyte development, we show that IL-7 expression is initiated independently of hematopoietic-derived signals during thymic organogenesis. However, thymocyte-derived signals play an essential role in regulating IL-7 expression in the adult TEC compartment. Furthermore, distinct thymocyte subsets regulate the expression of IL-7 and keratin 5 in adult cortical epithelium. Intraperitoneal injection of Recombination Activating Gene deficient mice (RAG-2−/−) with anti-CD3ϵ monoclonal antibody (mAb) induces CD4− 8− double negative thymocytes to undergo β-selection and differentiate into CD4+8+ cells. Analysis of the thymic stromal compartment reveals that progression through β-selection renders thymocytes competent to alter the pattern of IL-7 expression in the cortical TEC compartment. RAG-2−/− mice do not generate mature T cells and therefore the RAG-2−/− thymus is devoid of organized medullary regions. Histological examination of RAG-2−/− thymus following anti-CD3ϵ stimulation reveals the emergence of mature thymic medullary regions, as assessed by H & E staining and expression of thymic stromal medullary markers. Stromal medullary reorganization occurs in the absence of T cell receptor αβ expression, suggesting that activation of RAG-2−/− thymocytes by CD3ϵ ligation generates thymocyte-derived signals that induce thymic epithelial reorganization, generating a mature medullary compartment. This model provides a tool to assess the mechanisms underlying thymic medullary development. ^

Promoting detachment of neutrophils adherent to murine postcapillary venules to control inflammation: Effect of lipocortin 1

In this study we investigated, using intravital microscopy, how neutrophil extravasation across mouse mesenteric postcapillary venules is inhibited by the glucocorticoid-regulated protein lipocortin (LC; also termed annexin) 1. Intraperitoneal injection of 1 mg of zymosan into mice induced neutrophil rolling on the activated mesenteric endothelium followed by adhesion (maximal at 2 hr: 5–6 cells per 100-μm of vessel length) and emigration (maximal at 4 hr: 8–10 cells per high-powered field). Treatment of mice with human recombinant LC1 (2 mg/kg s.c.) or its mimetic peptide Ac2–26 (13 mg/kg s.c.) did not modify cell rolling but markedly reduced (≥50%) the degree of neutrophil adhesion and emigration (P < 0.05). Intravenous treatment with peptide Ac2–26 (13 mg/kg) or recombinant human LC1 (0.7–2 mg/kg) promoted detachment of neutrophils adherent to the endothelium 2 hr after zymosan administration, with adherent cells detaching within 4.12 ± 0.75 min and 2.36 ± 0.31 min, respectively (n = 20–25 cells). Recruitment of newly adherent cells to the endothelium was unaffected. The structurally related protein LC5 was inactive in this assay, whereas a chimeric molecule constructed from the N terminus of LC1 (49 aa) attached to the core region of LC5 produced cell detachment with kinetics similar to LC1. Removal of adherent neutrophils from activated postcapillary endothelium is a novel pharmacological action, and it is at this site where LC1 and its mimetics operate to down-regulate this aspect of the host inflammatory response.

Agonist-selective endocytosis of mu opioid receptor by neurons in vivo.

Opiate alkaloids are potent analgesics that exert multiple pharmacological effects in the nervous system by activating G protein-coupled receptors. Receptor internalization upon stimulation may be important for desensitization and resensitization, which affect cellular responsiveness to ligands. Here, we investigated the agonist-induced internalization of the mu opioid receptor (MOR) in vivo by using the guinea pig ileum as a model system and immunohistochemistry with an affinity-purified antibody to the C terminus of rat MOR. Antibody specificity was confirmed by the positive staining of human embryonic kidney 293 cells transfected with epitope-tagged MOR cDNA, by the lack of staining of cells transfected with the delta or kappa receptor cDNA, and by the abolition of staining when the MOR antibody was preadsorbed with the MOR peptide fragment. Abundant MOR immunoreactivity (MOR-IR) was localized to the cell body, dendrites, and axonal processes of myenteric neurons. Immunostaining was primarily confined to the plasma membrane of cell bodies and processes. Within 15 min of an intraperitoneal injection of the opiate agonist etorphine, intense MOR-IR was present in vesicle-like structures, which were identified as endosomes by confocal microscopy. At 30 min, MOR-IR was throughout the cytoplasm and in perinuclear vesicles. MOR-IR was still internalized at 120 min. Agonist-induced endocytosis was completely inhibited by the opiate antagonist naloxone. Interestingly, morphine, a high-affinity MOR agonist, did not cause detectable internalization, but it partially inhibited the etorphine-induced MOR endocytosis. These results demonstrate the occurrence of agonist-selective MOR endocytosis in neurons naturally expressing this receptor in vivo and suggest the existence of different mechanisms regulating cellular responsiveness to ligands.