Gait Analysis for Classification

This thesis describes a representation of gait appearance for the purpose of person identification and classification. This gait representation is based on simple localized image features such as moments extracted from orthogonal view video silhouettes of human walking motion. A suite of time-integration methods, spanning a range of coarseness of time aggregation and modeling of feature distributions, are applied to these image features to create a suite of gait sequence representations. Despite their simplicity, the resulting feature vectors contain enough information to perform well on human identification and gender classification tasks. We demonstrate the accuracy of recognition on gait video sequences collected over different days and times and under varying lighting environments. Each of the integration methods are investigated for their advantages and disadvantages. An improved gait representation is built based on our experiences with the initial set of gait representations. In addition, we show gender classification results using our gait appearance features, the effect of our heuristic feature selection method, and the significance of individual features.

Tools and methods for the quality assurance of force platforms in human movement analysis

The human movement analysis (HMA) aims to measure the abilities of a subject to stand or to walk. In the field of HMA, tests are daily performed in research laboratories, hospitals and clinics, aiming to diagnose a disease, distinguish between disease entities, monitor the progress of a treatment and predict the outcome of an intervention [Brand and Crowninshield, 1981; Brand, 1987; Baker, 2006]. To achieve these purposes, clinicians and researchers use measurement devices, like force platforms, stereophotogrammetric systems, accelerometers, baropodometric insoles, etc. This thesis focus on the force platform (FP) and in particular on the quality assessment of the FP data. The principal objective of our work was the design and the experimental validation of a portable system for the in situ calibration of FPs. The thesis is structured as follows: Chapter 1. Description of the physical principles used for the functioning of a FP: how these principles are used to create force transducers, such as strain gauges and piezoelectrics transducers. Then, description of the two category of FPs, three- and six-component, the signals acquisition (hardware structure), and the signals calibration. Finally, a brief description of the use of FPs in HMA, for balance or gait analysis. Chapter 2. Description of the inverse dynamics, the most common method used in the field of HMA. This method uses the signals measured by a FP to estimate kinetic quantities, such as joint forces and moments. The measures of these variables can not be taken directly, unless very invasive techniques; consequently these variables can only be estimated using indirect techniques, as the inverse dynamics. Finally, a brief description of the sources of error, present in the gait analysis. Chapter 3. State of the art in the FP calibration. The selected literature is divided in sections, each section describes: systems for the periodic control of the FP accuracy; systems for the error reduction in the FP signals; systems and procedures for the construction of a FP. In particular is detailed described a calibration system designed by our group, based on the theoretical method proposed by ?. This system was the “starting point” for the new system presented in this thesis. Chapter 4. Description of the new system, divided in its parts: 1) the algorithm; 2) the device; and 3) the calibration procedure, for the correct performing of the calibration process. The algorithm characteristics were optimized by a simulation approach, the results are here presented. In addiction, the different versions of the device are described. Chapter 5. Experimental validation of the new system, achieved by testing it on 4 commercial FPs. The effectiveness of the calibration was verified by measuring, before and after calibration, the accuracy of the FPs in measuring the center of pressure of an applied force. The new system can estimate local and global calibration matrices; by local and global calibration matrices, the non–linearity of the FPs was quantified and locally compensated. Further, a non–linear calibration is proposed. This calibration compensates the non– linear effect in the FP functioning, due to the bending of its upper plate. The experimental results are presented. Chapter 6. Influence of the FP calibration on the estimation of kinetic quantities, with the inverse dynamics approach. Chapter 7. The conclusions of this thesis are presented: need of a calibration of FPs and consequential enhancement in the kinetic data quality. Appendix: Calibration of the LC used in the presented system. Different calibration set–up of a 3D force transducer are presented, and is proposed the optimal set–up, with particular attention to the compensation of non–linearities. The optimal set–up is verified by experimental results.

Gait analysis using a single wearable inertial measurement unit

Procedures for quantitative walking analysis include the assessment of body segment movements within defined gait cycles. Recently, methods to track human body motion using inertial measurement units have been suggested. It is not known if these techniques can be readily transferred to clinical measurement situations. This work investigates the aspects necessary for one inertial measurement unit mounted on the lower back to track orientation, and determine spatio-temporal features of gait outside the confines of a conventional gait laboratory. Apparent limitations of different inertial sensors can be overcome by fusing data using methods such as a Kalman filter. The benefits of optimizing such a filter for the type of motion are unknown. 3D accelerations and 3D angular velocities were collected for 18 healthy subjects while treadmill walking. Optimization of Kalman filter parameters improved pitch and roll angle estimates when compared to angles derived using stereophotogrammetry. A Weighted Fourier Linear Combiner method for estimating 3D orientation angles by constructing an analytical representation of angular velocities and allowing drift free integration is also presented. When tested this method provided accurate estimates of 3D orientation when compared to stereophotogrammetry. Methods to determine spatio-temporal features from lower trunk accelerations generally require knowledge of sensor alignment. A method was developed to estimate the instants of initial and final ground contact from accelerations measured by a waist mounted inertial device without rigorous alignment. A continuous wavelet transform method was used to filter and differentiate the signal and derive estimates of initial and final contact times. The technique was tested with data recorded for both healthy and pathologic (hemiplegia and Parkinson’s disease) subjects and validated using an instrumented mat. The results show that a single inertial measurement unit can assist whole body gait assessment however further investigation is required to understand altered gait timing in some pathological subjects.

Human Motion Analysis Based on Sequential Modeling of Radar Signal and Stereo Image Features

Falls are one of the greatest threats to elderly health in their daily living routines and activities. Therefore, it is very important to detect falls of an elderly in a timely and accurate manner, so that immediate response and proper care can be provided, by sending fall alarms to caregivers. Radar is an effective non-intrusive sensing modality which is well suited for this purpose, which can detect human motions in all types of environments, penetrate walls and fabrics, preserve privacy, and is insensitive to lighting conditions. Micro-Doppler features are utilized in radar signal corresponding to human body motions and gait to detect falls using a narrowband pulse-Doppler radar. Human motions cause time-varying Doppler signatures, which are analyzed using time-frequency representations and matching pursuit decomposition (MPD) for feature extraction and fall detection. The extracted features include MPD features and the principal components of the time-frequency signal representations. To analyze the sequential characteristics of typical falls, the extracted features are used for training and testing hidden Markov models (HMM) in different falling scenarios. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm and method achieve fast and accurate fall detections. The risk of falls increases sharply when the elderly or patients try to exit beds. Thus, if a bed exit can be detected at an early stage of this motion, the related injuries can be prevented with a high probability. To detect bed exit for fall prevention, the trajectory of head movements is used for recognize such human motion. A head detector is trained using the histogram of oriented gradient (HOG) features of the head and shoulder areas from recorded bed exit images. A data association algorithm is applied on the head detection results to eliminate head detection false alarms. Then the three dimensional (3D) head trajectories are constructed by matching scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) keypoints in the detected head areas from both the left and right stereo images. The extracted 3D head trajectories are used for training and testing an HMM based classifier for recognizing bed exit activities. The results of the classifier are presented and discussed in the thesis, which demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed stereo vision based bed exit detection approach.

Gait analysis of the hind limb in Labrador Retrievers with and without cranial cruciate ligament disease

Cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) deficiency is the leading cause of lameness affecting the stifle joints of large breed dogs, especially Labrador Retrievers. Although CCL disease has been studied extensively, its exact pathogenesis and the primary cause leading to CCL rupture remain controversial. However, weakening secondary to repetitive microtrauma is currently believed to cause the majority of CCL instabilities diagnosed in dogs. Techniques of gait analysis have become the most productive tools to investigate normal and pathological gait in human and veterinary subjects. The inverse dynamics analysis approach models the limb as a series of connected linkages and integrates morphometric data to yield information about the net joint moment, patterns of muscle power and joint reaction forces. The results of these studies have greatly advanced our understanding of the pathogenesis of joint diseases in humans. A muscular imbalance between the hamstring and quadriceps muscles has been suggested as a cause for anterior cruciate ligament rupture in female athletes. Based on these findings, neuromuscular training programs leading to a relative risk reduction of up to 80% has been designed. In spite of the cost and morbidity associated with CCL disease and its management, very few studies have focused on the inverse dynamics gait analysis of this condition in dogs. The general goals of this research were (1) to further define gait mechanism in Labrador Retrievers with and without CCL-deficiency, (2) to identify individual dogs that are susceptible to CCL disease, and (3) to characterize their gait. The mass, location of the center of mass (COM), and mass moment of inertia of hind limb segments were calculated using a noninvasive method based on computerized tomography of normal and CCL-deficient Labrador Retrievers. Regression models were developed to determine predictive equations to estimate body segment parameters on the basis of simple morphometric measurements, providing a basis for nonterminal studies of inverse dynamics of the hind limbs in Labrador Retrievers. Kinematic, ground reaction forces (GRF) and morphometric data were combined in an inverse dynamics approach to compute hock, stifle and hip net moments, powers and joint reaction forces (JRF) while trotting in normal, CCL-deficient or sound contralateral limbs. Reductions in joint moment, power, and loads observed in CCL-deficient limbs were interpreted as modifications adopted to reduce or avoid painful mobilization of the injured stifle joint. Lameness resulting from CCL disease affected predominantly reaction forces during the braking phase and the extension during push-off. Kinetics also identified a greater joint moment and power of the contralateral limbs compared with normal, particularly of the stifle extensor muscles group, which may correlate with the lameness observed, but also with the predisposition of contralateral limbs to CCL deficiency in dogs. For the first time, surface EMG patterns of major hind limb muscles during trotting gait of healthy Labrador Retrievers were characterized and compared with kinetic and kinematic data of the stifle joint. The use of surface EMG highlighted the co-contraction patterns of the muscles around the stifle joint, which were documented during transition periods between flexion and extension of the joint, but also during the flexion observed in the weight bearing phase. Identification of possible differences in EMG activation characteristics between healthy patients and dogs with or predisposed to orthopedic and neurological disease may help understanding the neuromuscular abnormality and gait mechanics of such disorders in the future. Conformation parameters, obtained from femoral and tibial radiographs, hind limb CT images, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, of hind limbs predisposed to CCL deficiency were compared with the conformation parameters from hind limbs at low risk. A combination of tibial plateau angle and femoral anteversion angle measured on radiographs was determined optimal for discriminating predisposed and non-predisposed limbs for CCL disease in Labrador Retrievers using a receiver operating characteristic curve analysis method. In the future, the tibial plateau angle (TPA) and femoral anteversion angle (FAA) may be used to screen dogs suspected of being susceptible to CCL disease. Last, kinematics and kinetics across the hock, stifle and hip joints in Labrador Retrievers presumed to be at low risk based on their radiographic TPA and FAA were compared to gait data from dogs presumed to be predisposed to CCL disease for overground and treadmill trotting gait. For overground trials, extensor moment at the hock and energy generated around the hock and stifle joints were increased in predisposed limbs compared to non predisposed limbs. For treadmill trials, dogs qualified as predisposed to CCL disease held their stifle at a greater degree of flexion, extended their hock less, and generated more energy around the stifle joints while trotting on a treadmill compared with dogs at low risk. This characterization of the gait mechanics of Labrador Retrievers at low risk or predisposed to CCL disease may help developing and monitoring preventive exercise programs to decrease gastrocnemius dominance and strengthened the hamstring muscle group.

A comparison of two commercially available motion capture systems for gait analysis : high end vs low-cost

In 1999 Richards compared the accuracy of commercially available motion capture systems commonly used in biomechanics. Richards identified that in static tests the optical motion capture systems generally produced RMS errors of less than 1.0 mm. During dynamic tests, the RMS error increased to up to 4.2 mm in some systems. In the last 12 years motion capture systems have continued to evolve and now include high-resolution CCD or CMOS image sensors, wireless communication, and high full frame sampling frequencies. In addition to hardware advances, there have also been a number of advances in software, which includes improved calibration and tracking algorithms, real time data streaming, and the introduction of the c3d standard. These advances have allowed the system manufactures to maintain a high retail price in the name of advancement. In areas such as gait analysis and ergonomics many of the advanced features such as high resolution image sensors and high sampling frequencies are not required due to the nature of the task often investigated. Recently Natural Point introduced low cost cameras, which on face value appear to be suitable as at very least a high quality teaching tool in biomechanics and possibly even a research tool when coupled with the correct calibration and tracking software. The aim of the study was therefore to compare both the linear accuracy and quality of angular kinematics from a typical high end motion capture system and a low cost system during a simple task.

A human rights analysis of a claim for educational negligence in Australian schools

This thesis argues that an action in educational negligence should be available in Australia to provide a remedy for failure by schools and teachers to provide an adequate education as required by Australia’s human rights obligations. The thesis substantiates a duty of care to provide an adequate education under general principles of the law of negligence in appropriate cases. Although some protection exists for disabled students in Australia’s anti-discrimination and other legislation, non-disabled students are not afforded redress under existing causes of action. The educational negligence action provides a suitable remedy in an era of professional educational accountability.

Improving the railway’s understanding of accident causation through an integrated approach to human factors analysis and technical safety data recording

This paper describes a safety data recording and analysis system that has been developed to capture safety occurrences including precursors using high-definition forward-facing video from train cabs and data from other train-borne systems. The paper describes the data processing model and how events detected through data analysis are related to an underlying socio-technical model of accident causation. The integrated approach to safety data recording and analysis insures systemic factors that condition, influence or potentially contribute to an occurrence are captured both for safety occurrences and precursor events, providing a rich tapestry of antecedent causal factors that can significantly improve learning around accident causation. This can ultimately provide benefit to railways through the development of targeted and more effective countermeasures, better risk models and more effective use and prioritization of safety funds. Level crossing occurrences are a key focus in this paper with data analysis scenarios describing causal factors around near-miss occurrences. The paper concludes with a discussion on how the system can also be applied to other types of railway safety occurrences.

Does training policy help to attract, retain and develop valuable human resources? Analysis from the Mondragon case

This is an electronic version of the accepted paper in the journal:Advances in the Economic Analysis of Participatory and Labor-Managed Firms. Volumen. 12

Healthcare human reliability analysis - By heart

As part of the investigations into a surgical incident involving the accidental retention inside a patient's venous system of a guide wire for central venous catheterisation (CVC), the Human Error Assessment and Reduction Technique (HEART) was used to examine the potential for further occurrences. It was found to be time-efficient and to yield plausible probabilities of human error, although its use in healthcare has challenges, suggesting adaptation would be beneficial.

Healthcare human reliability analysis – by HEART

This book presents the proceedings of the international conference on Contemporary Ergonomics and Human Factors 2013.

A Neural Pattern Generator that Exhibits Arousal-Dependant Human Gait Transitions

A neural pattern generator based upon a non-linear cooperative-competitive feedback neural network is presented. It can generate the two standard human gaits: the walk and the run. A scalar arousal or GO signal causes a bifurcation from one gait to the next. Although these two gaits are qualitatively different, they both have the same limb order and may exhibit oscillation frequencies that overlap. The model simulates the walk and the run via qualitatively different waveform shapes. The fraction of cycle that activity is above threshold distinguishes the two gaits, much as the duty cycles of the feet are longer in the walk than in the run.