'Digital by Default' and the 'hard to reach' : exploring solutions to digital exclusion in remote rural areas

The research reported here is supported by the award made by the RCUK Digital Economy programme to the dot.rural Digital Economy Hub [award reference: EP/G066051/1].

Is human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome decreasing among Brazilian injection drug users? Recent findings and how to interpret them

We briefly review findings from Brazilian settings where the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) epidemic among injection drug users (IDUs) seems to be decreasing, highlighting recent findings from Rio de Janeiro and discussing methodological alternatives. Former analyses using serologic testing algorithm for recent HIV seroconversion have shown that HIV incidence has been low in IDUs recruited by two different surveys carried out in Rio, where low injection frequencies and infection rates have been found among new injectors. The proportion of AIDS cases among IDUs in Rio has been fairly modest, compared to São Paulo and especially to the southernmost states. Notwithstanding, the interpretation of findings from serial surveys constitutes a challenge, magnified in the assessment of HIV spread among IDUs due to the dynamic nature of the drug scenes and limitations of sampling strategies targeting hard-to-reach populations. Assessment of epidemic trends may profit from the triangulation of data, but cannot avert biases associated with sampling errors. Efforts should be made to triangulate data from different sources, besides exploring specific studies from different perspectives. In an attempt to further assess the observed trends, we carried out original analyses using data from Brazilian AIDS databank.

HIV disclosure decisions and social support among African-American women in Houston, Texas

African Americans make up 12.3% of the population but account for over half of the new HIV cases and 39% of the AIDS cases in 2003 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2003). African American women in particular accounted for 64% of these cases of HIV and 60% of the AIDS cases (Leigh & Huff, 2003). This study contributed to the knowledge about the disclosure process of women living with HIV/AIDS by documenting the relationship between social support and the disclosure process in the African American HIV/AIDS population.^ The study aims were to: (1) discuss the participants' self concept of support; (2) describe the common characteristics of the disclosure process; and (3) evaluate the common characteristics of support sought in a potential disclosure source. The ethnographic qualitative methodology was utilized to elicit participant narratives of HIV disclosure and social support. The researcher utilized a key informant interview methodology building on existing social and organizational relationships (Krueger, 1994) to gain access to the population. ^ Semi-structured interviews are a widely used and accepted qualitative research method for use with hard to reach populations and sensitive topics. Ten participants completed a 45 to 60 minute, one on one semi-structured interview covering social support and disclosure variables. Inclusion and exclusion criteria included: (1) self identified as a person living with HIV/AIDS; (2) African American); (3) female; (4) age 18-64 years old, (5) residence in Houston or surrounding counties.^ Themes generated from the interviews were (1) nondisclosure, (2) experiences with disclosure, (3) timing, (4) disclosure sources, and (5) coping. The themes suggest African American women living with HIV/AIDS come from different lifestyles but share similar experiences. Women utilize different strategies such as deciphering whom to trust and determining how much information to divulge in order to protect themselves or others.^ Although the sample group was small for this study, the results inform us about the various experiences each woman goes through as it relates to social support and disclosure and that each woman has to customize her response to the type of support she is receiving and her personal attitude about her disease.^

Dewatering of hard-to-dewater pulps

Nanocellulose has much potential for enhancing the tensile strength of paper but it slows down significantly drainage, restricting its use in industrial scale. Main objective of the work was to find ways to improve the dewatering of nanocellulose-containing papers. The effects of cationic potato starch, microparticle system and filler addition on dewatering and such key properties as formation, tensile strength and air permeance of manufactured paper were studied. Test points had 0, 4 or 8 % CNF and 0, 15 or 30 % PCC content. Based on earlier studies, 25 mg/g starch dosage was added to some test points. Modern microparticle system, consisted of cationic polyacrylamide and amorphous silica, was used in few test points. Dosages for both components were 0.3 and 0.6 mg/g, following the recommendations of the supplier. Also, the influences of CNF and filler on drying behaviour after different stages (drainage, wet pressing and cylinder drying) were estimated. Following trends were observed. Starch does not have unambiguous influence on dewatering. In some cases, it improved drainage slightly but effects on the properties of end product were discovered small. Filler quickened dewatering but large proportions were noticed to be detrimental for the drainage, air permeance and tensile strength. Microparticle system improved drainage notably, especially if CNF dosage was high. In addition, microparticle system increased tensile strength and decreased air permeance. However, its effects on formation were detrimental. Dewatering of nanocellulose-containing furnishes is treatable up to a certain point. In the end, such drainage times that were measured from test points which consisted only of pure kraft pulps are awkward to reach.

Spatial community shift from hard to soft corals in acidified water

Anthropogenic increases in the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) cause ocean acidification, declining calcium carbonate saturation states, reduced coral reef calcification and changes in the compositions of marine communities. Most projected community changes due to ocean acidification describe transitions from hard coral to non-calcifying macroalgal communities; other organisms have received less attention, despite the biotic diversity of coral reef communities. We show that the spatial distributions of both hard and soft coral communities in volcanically acidified, semi-enclosed waters off Iwotorishima Island, Japan, are related to pCO2 levels. Hard corals are restricted to non-acidified low- pCO2 (225 µatm) zones, dense populations of the soft coral Sarcophyton elegans dominate medium- pCO2 (831 µatm) zones, and both hard and soft corals are absent from the highest- pCO2 (1,465 µatm) zone. In CO2-enriched culture experiments, high- pCO2 conditions benefited Sarcophyton elegans by enhancing photosynthesis rates and did not affect light calcification, but dark decalcification (negative net calcification) increased with increasing pCO2. These results suggest that reef communities may shift from reef-building hard corals to non-reef-building soft corals under pCO2 levels (550-970 µatm) predicted by the end of this century, and that higher pCO2 levels would challenge the survival of some reef organisms.

Genotypic Resistance Tests Sequences Reveal the Role of Marginalized Populations in HIV-1 Transmission in Switzerland.

Targeting hard-to-reach/marginalized populations is essential for preventing HIV-transmission. A unique opportunity to identify such populations in Switzerland is provided by a database of all genotypic-resistance-tests from Switzerland, including both sequences from the Swiss HIV Cohort Study (SHCS) and non-cohort sequences. A phylogenetic tree was built using 11,127 SHCS and 2,875 Swiss non-SHCS sequences. Demographics were imputed for non-SHCS patients using a phylogenetic proximity approach. Factors associated with non-cohort outbreaks were determined using logistic regression. Non-B subtype (univariable odds-ratio (OR): 1.9; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.8-2.1), female gender (OR: 1.6; 95% CI: 1.4-1.7), black ethnicity (OR: 1.9; 95% CI: 1.7-2.1) and heterosexual transmission group (OR:1.8; 95% CI: 1.6-2.0), were all associated with underrepresentation in the SHCS. We found 344 purely non-SHCS transmission clusters, however, these outbreaks were small (median 2, maximum 7 patients) with a strong overlap with the SHCS'. 65% of non-SHCS sequences were part of clusters composed of >= 50% SHCS sequences. Our data suggests that marginalized-populations are underrepresented in the SHCS. However, the limited size of outbreaks among non-SHCS patients in-care implies that no major HIV outbreak in Switzerland was missed by the SHCS surveillance. This study demonstrates the potential of sequence data to assess and extend the scope of infectious-disease surveillance.

Effect of cooking on non-starch polysaccharides of hard-to-cook beans

Experiments carried out to study changes induced by hard-to-cook (HTC) phenomenon in the non-starch polysaccharides of beans stored at 30 degrees C and 75% RH for 8 months showed that the development of HTC did not affect the amounts of soluble and insoluble fibre in cooked seeds but changed their carbohydrates physical properties. Aged beans non-starch polysaccharides presented lower water-solubility and underwent lower degradation of galacturonans and arabinose-rich polysaccharides when submitted to cooking. The decrease in non-starch polysaccharides water-solubility produced a shift in the polymers fractionation profile which resulted in an increase of weak and middle-alkali soluble polymers bulk as well as in their arabinose and uronic acid contents. Uronic acid contents were higher in polymers released by 1 M NaOH and in the cellulose-rich residues while the arabinose contents were higher in the mild-alkali soluble polymers of aged seeds. Methylation analysis showed no evident alterations in the xyloglucans and arabinans branching degree with beans ageing. However, both, the molecular mass of water-soluble pectins and CDTA-soluble pectins, increased. Even though changes in the non-starch polysaccharide solubility were not related to the decrease in the arabinan and xyloglucan degree of branching they may be related to the formation of new chemical interactions other than hydrogen bond. There was a correlation between acidic and neutral polysaccharides insolubilisation in beans ageing and probably in beans hardening. After processing, aged seeds present higher amounts of insoluble fibre when compared to normal beans. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Psychosocial pathways to inconsistent condom use among male sex workers: personality, drug misuse and criminality

Background: This research compared street male sex workers in Santo Andre, Brazil, that reported consistent condom use with those that revealed inconsistent condom use with their clients, concerning personality aspects, impulsiveness, alcohol and drug consumption, depressive symptoms, sociodemographic data and criminal involvement. Methods: Eighty-six male sex workers were evaluated in face-to-face interviews at their place of work. A `snowball` sampling procedure was used to access this hard-to-reach population. Findings: Male sex workers with inconsistent condom use showed greater involvement with criminal activities, higher reward dependence level and more frequent self-report of being HIV-positive. Conclusions: Conceptualisation of male sex workers` psychological characteristics may be required where HIV risk is not only attributed to sex work per se, but to other aspects such as personality-related factors and negative identity.

Telehealth in audiology: The need and potential to reach underserved communities

Permanent hearing loss is a leading global health care burden, with 1 in 10 people affected to a mild or greater degree. A shortage of trained healthcare professionals and associated infrastructure and resource limitations mean that hearing health services are unavailable to the majority of the world population. Utilizing information and communication technology in hearing health care, or tele-audiology, combined with automation offer unique opportunities for improved clinical care, widespread access to services, and more cost-effective and sustainable hearing health care. Tele-audiology demonstrates significant potential in areas such as education and training of hearing health care professionals, paraprofessionals, parents, and adults with hearing disorders; screening for auditory disorders; diagnosis of hearing loss; and intervention services. Global connectivity is rapidly growing with increasingly widespread distribution into underserved communities where audiological services may be facilitated through telehealth models. Although many questions related to aspects such as quality control, licensure, jurisdictional responsibility, certification and reimbursement still need to be addressed; no alternative strategy can currently offer the same potential reach for impacting the global burden of hearing loss in the near and foreseeable future.

How different is Mediterranean Caulerpa taxifolia (Caulerpales : Chlorophyta) to other populations of the species?

The green macroalgal species Caulerpa taxifolia is indigenous to tropical/subtropical Australia, ranging as far south as 28degrees and 29degrees 15' S on the Australian mainland east and west coasts, respectively. The origin of disjunct populations of the species, discovered in 2000 on the Australian mainland east coast at localities to 35degrees S remains unknown, variously attributed to introduced exotic strains or range extensions from other eastern Australian populations. Some naturally occurring Australian populations of C. taxifolia are similar to Mediterranean C. taxifolia. In Australia, large broad forms of the species, which have been known in the region since 1860, grow luxuriantly in sheltered seagrass meadows, with some of these populations tolerating minimum surface seawater temperatures in winter of 12.5 to 14.5degreesC. Accordingly, the contention that the Mediterranean has been invaded by a genetically-modified, large, cold-adapted strain of C. taxifolia may be incorrect. It is crucial that genetic markers (DNA fingerprinting, microsatellites) sensitive at the population level are used to accurately determine the genetic relatedness of C. taxifolia populations.

Dentro de portas : trabalhadoras do sexo em contexto de interior : utilização e acesso a serviços de saúde na área da infeção VIH-Sida

RESUMO - O presente estudo pretende contribuir a nível de saúde pública para o planeamento de estratégias orientadas para a prevenção, rastreio e tratamento do VIH/Sida em trabalhadores sexuais em contexto de interior. Esta é uma população de difícil acesso, particularmente vulnerável à infeção por VIH, e associada a fatores de risco que incluem a pobreza, discriminação e desigualdade de género, estigma e exclusão social, condicionando o seu acesso a serviços de saúde. Analisaram-se 272 questionários aplicados no âmbito do estudo PREVIH na área da Grande Lisboa no período entre Agosto de 2011 e Setembro de 2012 a pessoas que fazem trabalho sexual em contexto de interior. Foi realizada uma abordagem analítica permitindo a descrição do fenómeno e a análise da relação entre variáveis sociodemográficas e variáveis sobre o acesso a saúde para informação, prevenção e teste na área do VIH/Sida. Verificou-se que nesta amostra maioritariamente feminina existe elevada presença dos outros dois géneros e os indivíduos são maioritariamente migrantes. O trabalho sexual é uma forma exclusiva de trabalho, sendo exercido a tempo inteiro e em apartamentos. Foram detetados condicionamentos no acesso a serviços de saúde nas populações minoritárias e mais suscetíveis a discriminação, tanto na questão do género como da nacionalidade. Estes resultados apontam para a necessidade de planear intervenções nesta área que permitam uma abordagem participativa e de proximidade com as populações mais vulneráveis e também a necessidade de dar continuidade à investigação nesta área no sentido de reforçar políticas de saúde pública aplicadas a trabalhadores sexuais.

Why is it so Hard to Value Intangibles? Evidence from Investments in High-Technology Start-Ups

The paper uses a range of primary-source empirical evidence to address the question: ‘why is it to hard to value intangible assets?’ The setting is venture capital investment in high technology companies. While the investors are risk specialists and financial experts, the entrepreneurs are more knowledgeable about product innovation. Thus the context lends itself to analysis within a principal-agent framework, in which information asymmetry may give rise to adverse selection, pre-contract, and moral hazard, post-contract. We examine how the investor might attenuate such problems and attach a value to such high-tech investments in what are often merely intangible assets, through expert due diligence, monitoring and control. Qualitative evidence is used to qualify the more clear cut picture provided by a principal-agent approach to a more mixed picture in which the ‘art and science’ of investment appraisal are utilised by both parties alike

Genetic diversity and differentiation processes in the ploidy series of Olea europaea L.: a multiscale approach from subspecies to insular populations.

Geographical isolation and polyploidization are central concepts in plant evolution. The hierarchical organization of archipelagos in this study provides a framework for testing the evolutionary consequences for polyploid taxa and populations occurring in isolation. Using amplified fragment length polymorphism and simple sequence repeat markers, we determined the genetic diversity and differentiation patterns at three levels of geographical isolation in Olea europaea: mainland-archipelagos, islands within an archipelago, and populations within an island. At the subspecies scale, the hexaploid ssp. maroccana (southwest Morocco) exhibited higher genetic diversity than the insular counterparts. In contrast, the tetraploid ssp. cerasiformis (Madeira) displayed values similar to those obtained for the diploid ssp. guanchica (Canary Islands). Geographical isolation was associated with a high genetic differentiation at this scale. In the Canarian archipelago, the stepping-stone model of differentiation suggested in a previous study was partially supported. Within the western lineage, an east-to-west differentiation pattern was confirmed. Conversely, the easternmost populations were more related to the mainland ssp. europaea than to the western guanchica lineage. Genetic diversity across the Canarian archipelago was significantly correlated with the date of the last volcanic activity in the area/island where each population occurs. At the island scale, this pattern was not confirmed in older islands (Tenerife and Madeira), where populations were genetically homogeneous. In contrast, founder effects resulted in low genetic diversity and marked genetic differentiation among populations of the youngest island, La Palma.

The likelihood approach to compare populations : a study on DNA evidence and pitfalls of intuitions

The paper follows on from earlier work [Taroni F and Aitken CGG. Probabilistic reasoning in the law, Part 1: assessment of probabilities and explanation of the value of DNA evidence. Science & Justice 1998; 38: 165-177]. Different explanations of the value of DNA evidence were presented to students from two schools of forensic science and to members of fifteen laboratories all around the world. The responses were divided into two groups; those which came from a school or laboratory identified as Bayesian and those which came from a school or laboratory identified as non-Bayesian. The paper analyses these responses using a likelihood approach. This approach is more consistent with a Bayesian analysis than one based on a frequentist approach, as was reported by Taroni F and Aitken CGG. [Probabilistic reasoning in the law, Part 1: assessment of probabilities and explanation of the value of DNA evidence] in Science & Justice 1998.