Pine wilt disease: global issues, trade and economic impact

Pine wilt disease (PWD) is perhaps the most serious threat to pine forests worldwide. Since it´s discovery in the early XXth century by Japanese forest researchers, and the relationship with its causative agent, the pinewood nematode (PWN) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, in the 1970s, PWD has wreaked havoc wherever it appears. Firstly in the Far East (Japan, China and Korea) and now, more recently in 1999, in the EU (Portugal). The forest sector in Portugal plays a major role in the Portuguese economy with a 12% contribution to the industrial gross domestic product, 3.2% of the gross domestic product, 10% of foreign trade and 5% of national employment. Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) is one of the most important pine productions, and industrial activity, such as the production of wood and resin, as well as coastal protection associated with sand dunes. Also, stone pine (Pinus pinea) plays an important role in the economy with a share derived from the exports of high-quality pineon seed. Thus, the tremendous economical and ecological impact of the introduction of a pest and pathogen such as the PWN, although as far as is known, the only species susceptible to the nematode is maritime pine. Immediately following detection, the research team involved (Univ. Évora, INIAP) informed the national plant quarantine and forest authorities, which relayed the information to Brussels and the appropriate EU authorities. A task force (GANP), followed by a national program (PROLUNP) was established. Since then, national surveys have been taking place, involving MADRP (Ministry of Agriculture), the University of Évora and several private corporations (e.g. UNAC). Forest growers in the area are particularly interested and involved since the area owned by the growers organizations totals 700 000 ha, largely affected by PWD. Detection of the disease has led to serious consequences and restrictions regarding exploration and commercialization of wood. A precautionary phytosanitary strip, 3 km-wide, has been recently (2007) established surrounding the affected area. The Portuguese government, through its national program PROLUNP, has been deeply involved since 1999, and in conjunction with the EU (Permanent Phytosanitary Committee, and FVO) and committed to controlling this nematode and the potential spread to the rest of the country and to the rest of the EU. The global impact of the presence of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus or the threat of its introduction and the resulting pine wilt disease in forested areas in different parts of the world is of increasing concern economically. The concern is exacerbated by the prevailing debate on climate change and the putative impact this could have on the vulnerability of the world’s pine forests to this disease. The scientific and regulatory approach taken in different jurisdictions to the threat of pine wilt disease varies from country to country depending on the perceived vulnerability of their pine forests to the disease and/or to the economic cost due to lost trade in wood products. Much of the research surrounding pine wilt disease has been located in the northern hemisphere, especially in southern Europe and in the warmer, coastal, Asian countries. However, there is an increased focus on this problem also in those countries in the southern hemisphere where plantations of susceptible pine have been established over the years. The forestry sector in Australia and New Zealand are on “high alert” for this disease and are practicing strict quarantine procedures at all ports of entry for wood products. As well, there is heightened awareness, as there is worldwide, for the need to monitor wood packaging materials for all imported goods. In carrying out the necessary monitoring and assessment of products for B. xylophilus and its vectors substantial costs are incurred especially when decisions have to be made rapidly and regardless of whether the outcome is positive or negative. Australia’s response recently to the appearance of some dying pines in a plantation illustrated the high sensitivity of some countries to this disease. Some $200,000 was spent on the assessment in order to save a potential loss of millions of dollars to the disease. This rapid, co-ordinated response to the report was for naught, because once identified it was found not to be B. xylophilus. This illustrates the particular importance of taking the responsibility at all levels of management to secure the site and the need of a rapid, reliable diagnostic method for small nematode samples for use in the field. Australia is particularly concerned about the vulnerability of its 1million hectares of planted forests, 80% of which are Pinus species, to attack from incursions of one or more species of the insect vector. Monochamus alternatus incursions in wood pallets have been reported from Brisbane, Queensland. The climate of this part of Australia is such that the Pinus plantations are particularly vulnerable to the potential outcome of such incursions, and the state of Queensland is developing a risk management strategy and a proactive breeding programme in response to this putative threat. New Zealand has 1.6 million hectares of planted forests and 89% of the commercial forest is Pinus radiata. Although the climate where these forests are located tends to be somewhat cooler than that in Australia the potential for establishment and development of the disease in that country is believed to be high. The passage alone of 200,000 m³/year of wood packaging through New Zealand ports is itself sufficient to require response. The potential incursion of insect vectors of pinewood nematode through the port system is regarded as high and is monitored carefully. The enormous expansion of global trade and the continued use of unprocessed/inadequately-processed wood for packaging purposes is a challenge for all trading nations as such wood packaging material often harbours disease or pest species. The extent of this problem is readily illustrated by the expanding economies and exports of countries in south-east Asia. China. Japan and Korea have significant areas of forestland infested with B. xylophilus. These countries too are among the largest exporting countries of manufactured goods. Despite the attempts of authorities to ensure that only properly treated wood is used in the crating and packaging of goods B. xylophilus and/or its insect vector infested materials is being recorded at ports worldwide. This reminds us, therefore, of the ease with which this nematode pest can gain access to forest lands in new geographic locations through inappropriate use, treatment or monitoring of wood products. It especially highlights the necessity to find an alternative to using low-grade lumber for packaging purposes. Lest we should believe that all wood products are always carriers of B. xylophilus and its vectors, it should be remembered that international trade of all kinds has occurred for thousands of years and that lumber-born pests and diseases do not have worldwide distribution. Other physico-biological factors have a significant role in the occurrence, establishment and sustainability of a disease. The question is often raised as to why the whole of southern Europe doesn’t already have B. xylophilus and pine wilt disease. European countries have traded with countries that are infested with B. xylophilus for hundreds of years. Turkey is an example of a country that appears to be highly vulnerable to pine wilt disease due to its extensive forests in the warm, southern region where the vector, Monochamus galloprovincialis, occurs. However, there is no record of the presence of B. xylophilus occurring there despite the importation of substantial quantities of wood from several countries In many respects, Portugal illustrates both the challenge and the dilemma. In recent times B. xylophilus was discovered there in the warm coastal region. The research, administrative and quarantine authorities responded rapidly and B. xylophilus appears to have been confined to the region in which it was found. The rapid response would seem to have “saved the day” for Portugal. Nevertheless, it raises again the long-standing questions, how long had B. xylophilus been in Portugal before it was found? If Lisbon was the port of entry, which seems very likely, why had B. xylophilus not entered Lisbon many years earlier and established populations and the pine wilt disease? Will the infestation in Portugal be sustainable and will it spread or will it die out within a few years? We still do not have sufficient understanding of the biology of this pest to know the answers to these questions.

Global issues.

En la comunidad docente, al igual que entre los jóvenes de once a dieciséis años, hay un interés creciente por los temas que afectan a un mundo cada vez más globalizado, en el que se impone la necesidad de comprender a otras culturas al hacerse más importantes las relaciones entre ellas. En este contexto, la enseñanza de idiomas se considera como una ayuda para fomentar el entendimiento intercultural y hacer frente a los estereotipos, los prejuicios y las barreras culturales. Este libro ofrece a los profesores un gran número de actividades para desarrollar en clase, que incluyen técnicas como el arte, la música, el teatro, debates y juegos. Todo ello para desarrollar en los alumnos las habilidades de comunicación, la reflexión y el pensamiento crítico.

IB Middle years programme : global issues . Project organizer 1.

Libro para alumnos del primer curso del Programa de los Años Intermedios (PAI) del Bachillerato Internacional (IB) centrado en el aprendizaje interdisciplinar. Sus contenidos reflejan aspectos clave de la filosofía y el enfoque del programa del BI como la mentalidad internacional y la honestidad académica. Está estructurado en seis lecciones cada una sobre un tema extraído de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio acordados por Naciones Unidas: erradicación de la pobreza, refugiados e inmigrantes, educación universal, salud y enfermedad, comercio mundial y desarrollo, sostenibilidad del medio ambiente. El acercamiento a cada tema se hace desde distintas materias para estructurar y facilitar el estudio interdisciplinario.

IB Middle years programme : global issues . Project organizer 2.

Libro para alumnos del segundo curso del Programa de los Años Intermedios (PAI) del Bachillerato Internacional (IB) centrado en el aprendizaje interdisciplinar del tema de la agricultura. Sus contenidos reflejan aspectos clave de la filosofía y el enfoque del programa del BI como la mentalidad internacional y la honestidad académica. Está estructurado en seis lecciones cada una sobre un tema extraído de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio acordados por Naciones Unidas: la pobreza y el hambre, conflictos y la paz, educación universal, salud y enfermedad, comercio mundial y desarrollo, sostenibilidad del medio ambiente. El acercamiento a cada tema se hace desde distintas materias para estructurar y facilitar el estudio interdisciplinario .

IB Middle years programme : global issues . Project organizer 3.

Libro para alumnos del tercer curso del Programa de los Años Intermedios (PAI) del Bachillerato Internacional (IB) centrado en el aprendizaje interdisciplinar. Sus contenidos reflejan aspectos clave de la filosofía y el enfoque del programa del BI como la mentalidad internacional y la honestidad académica. Está estructurado en seis lecciones cada una sobre un tema extraído de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio acordados por Naciones Unidas (la pobreza y el hambre, conflictos y la paz, educación universal, salud y enfermedad, comercio mundial y desarrollo, sostenibilidad del medio ambiente) en relación con los recursos disponibles en el planeta. El acercamiento a cada tema se hace desde distintas materias para estructurar y facilitar el estudio interdisciplinario.

IB Middle years programme : global issues . Project organizer 4.

Libro para alumnos del cuarto curso del Programa de los Años Intermedios (PAI) del Bachillerato Internacional (IB) centrado en el aprendizaje interdisciplinar. Sus contenidos reflejan aspectos clave de la filosofía y el enfoque del programa del BI como la mentalidad internacional y la honestidad académica. Está estructurado en seis lecciones cada una sobre un tema extraído de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio acordados por Naciones Unidas (la pobreza y el hambre, conflictos y la paz, educación universal, salud y enfermedad, comercio mundial y desarrollo, sostenibilidad del medio ambiente) en relación con el tema de la población mundial y la superpoblación. El acercamiento a cada tema se hace desde distintas materias para estructurar y facilitar el estudio interdisciplinario.

IB Middle years programme : global issues . Project organizer 5.

Libro para alumnos del quinto curso del Programa de los Años Intermedios (PAI) del Bachillerato Internacional (IB) centrado en el aprendizaje interdisciplinar. Sus contenidos reflejan aspectos clave de la filosofía y el enfoque del programa del BI como la mentalidad internacional y la honestidad académica. Está estructurado en seis lecciones cada una sobre un tema extraído de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio acordados por Naciones Unidas (la pobreza y el hambre, conflictos y la paz, educación universal, salud y enfermedad, comercio mundial y desarrollo, sostenibilidad del medio ambiente) en relación con la ética, los derechos y la moral. El acercamiento a cada tema se hace desde distintas materias para estructurar y facilitar el estudio interdisciplinario.

Multicultural education, global studies and studies of Asia

Like other nations, Australia has experienced significant change in the past few decades as its society has become increasingly diverse. The new cultures and traditions that result from ethnic and religious diversity have both enriched Australian society and presented it with some challenges. Other challenges have resulted from increased globalisation. For example, the economic fallout from the recent global financial crisis indicates that global issues can impact across a range of levels, from multinational corporations and nation-states to local sites and individual livelihoods. Some suggest that Australia fared better than other nations during this economic crisis because of its export trade with China. Although this is disputed by economists, it highlights another facet of change that is impacting on Australian society and this relates to Australia’s growing engagement with the nations of Asia. There is increasing awareness in education systems that if young people are to achieve their potential as future citizens they need to be able to negotiate the cultural, social, political and economic ties that connect them to the global and regional community through work, leisure and citizenship. Multicultural education, global studies and studies of Asia play a particular part in helping young people to: • appreciate cultural diversity within and beyond their own nation • imagine with some accuracy how others view their world • participate in shaping a better future. This chapter explores the origins, distinctions and common features of each approach.

David Hicks and Cathie Holden (eds.) (2007). Teaching The Global Dimension. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 212 pages.

Teaching The Global Dimension (2007) is intended for primary and secondary teachers, pre-service teachers and educators interested in fostering global concerns in the education system. It aims at linking theory and practice and is structured as follows. Part 1, the global dimension, proposes an educational framework for understanding global concerns. Individual chapters in this section deal with some educational responses to global issues and the ways in which young people might become, in Hick’s terms, more “world-minded”. In the first two chapters, Hicks presents first, some educational responses to global issues that have emerged in recent decades, and second, an outline of the evolution of global education as a specific field. As with all the chapters in this book, most of the examples are drawn from the United Kingdom. Young people’s concerns, student teachers’ views and the teaching of controversial issues, comprise the other chapters in this section. Taken collectively, the chapters in Part 2 articulate the conceptual framework for developing, teaching and evaluating a global dimension across the curriculum. Individual chapters in this section, written by a range of authors, explore eight key concepts considered necessary to underpin appropriate learning experiences in the classroom. These are conflict, social justice, values and perceptions, sustainability, interdependence, human rights, diversity and citizenship. These chapters are engaging and well structured. Their common format consists of a succinct introduction, reference to positive action for change, and examples of recent effective classroom practice. Two chapters comprise the final section of this book and suggest different ways in which the global dimension can be achieved in the primary and the secondary classroom.