The clinical utility of the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test as a screening test for mild dementia

Objective. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT) could be used as a valid and reliable screening test for mild dementia in older people, and to compare its performance to that of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Method. Using a cross-sectional design, we studied three groups of older subjects recruited from a district geriatric psychiatry service: (1) 26 patients with DSM-IV dementia and MMSE scores of 18 or better; (2) 15 patients with psychiatric diagnoses other than dementia; and (3) 15 normal controls. The relationship of each potential cutting point on the HVLT and the MMSE was examined against the independently ascertained DSM-IV diagnoses of dementia using a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis. Results. The subjects consisted of 21 (37.5%) males and 35 (62.5%) females with a mean age of 74.7 (SD 6.1) years and a mean of 8.5 (SD 1.8) years of formal education. ROC analysis indicated that the optimal cutting point for detecting mild dementia in this group of subjects using the HVLT was 18/19 (sensitivity = 0.96, specificity = 0.80) and using the MMSE was 25/26 (sensitivity = 0.88, specificity = 0.93). Conclusions. The HVLT can be recommended as a valid and reliable screening test for mild dementia and as an adjunct in the clinical assessment of older people. The HVLT had better sensitivity than the MMSE in detecting patients with mild dementia, whereas the MMSE had better specificity. Copyright (C) 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Portuguese version of the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98: reliability and validity

Objective To assess the validity and the reliability of the Portuguese version of the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98 (DRS-R-98). Methods The scale was translated into Portuguese and back-translated into English. After assessing its face validity, five diagnostic groups (n = 64; delirium, depression, dementia, schizophrenia and others) were evaluated by two independent researchers blinded to the diagnosis. Diagnosis and severity of delirium as measured by the DRS-R-98 were compared to clinical diagnosis, Mini-Mental State Exam, Confusion Assessment Method, and Clinical Global Impressions scale (CGI). Results Mean and rnedian DRS-R-98 total scores significantly distinguished delirium from the other groups (p < 0.001). Inter-rater reliability (ICC between 0.9 and 1) and internal consistency (alpha = 0.91) were very high. DRS-R-98 severity scores correlated highly with the CGI. Mean DRS-R-98 severity scores during delirium differed significantly (p < 0.01) from the post-treatment values. The area under the curve established by ROC analysis was 0.99 and using the cut-off Value of 20 the scale showed sensitivity and specificity of 92.6% and 94.6%, respectively. Conclusion The Portuguese version of the DRS-R-98 is a valid and reliable measure of delirium that distinguishes delirium from other disorders and is sensitive to change in delirium severity, which may be of great value for longitudinal studies. Copyright (c) 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Optimizing the CAMCOG test in the screening for mild cognitive impairment and incipient dementia: saving time with relevant domains

Objective: To identify the CAMCOG sub-items that best contribute for the identification of patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and incipient Alzheimer`s disease (AD) in clinical practice. Methods: Cross-sectional assessment of 272 older adults (98 MCI, 82 AD, and 92 controls) with a standardized neuropsychological battery and the CAMCOG schedule. Backward logistic regression analysis with diagnosis (MCI and controls) as dependent variable and the sub-items of the CAMCOG as independent variable was carried out to determine the CAMCOG sub-items that predicted the diagnosis of MCI. Results: Lower scores on Language, Memory, Praxis, and Calculation CAMCOG sub-items were significantly associated with the diagnosis of MCI. A composite score obtained by the sum of these scores significantly discriminated MCI patients from comparison groups. This reduced version of the CAMCOG showed similar diagnostic accuracy than the original schedule for the identification of patients with MCI as compared to controls (AUC = 0.80 +/- 0.03 for the reduced CAMCOG; AUC = 0.79 +/- 0.03 for the original CAMCOG). Conclusion: This reduced version of the CAMCOG had similar diagnostic properties as the original CAMCOG and was faster and easier to administer, rendering it more suitable for the screening of subtle cognitive deficits in general clinical practice. Copyright (C) 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Interleukin-1 beta Serum Levels is Increased in Antidepressant-Free Elderly Depressed Patients

Objective: To assess the serum levels of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 beta) in elderly depressed patients in comparison with nondepressed healthy elderly subjects. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Tertiary memory clinic. Participants: Twenty-three antidepressant-free elderly depressed patients and 44 nondepressed healthy elderly comparison group were enrolled to this study. Measurement: Serum IL-1 beta levels were determined with highly sensitive colorimetric sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Severity of the depressive episode was determined by scores on the Hamilton Depression Scale-21 item and cognitive performance by the scores on the Cambridge Cognition Examination, Mini Mental State Examination clock drawing test, and verbal fluency. Results: IL-1 beta serum levels were increased in elderly patients versus nondepressed elderly (t = 2.21, df = 65, p = 0.04). After categorizing elderly depressed subjects into late onset (LOD) versus early onset (EOD), patients with EOD had the highest IL-1 beta levels, when compared with nondepressed elderly patients and patients with LOD in analysis of variance (F = 4.9, df = 2, 64, p < 0.01). Conclusions: Late-life depression is associated with higher IL-1 beta levels suggesting that increased proinflammatory state may play a role in the physiopathology of depression in the elderly. The authors further show that this might be more prominent in those patients with EOD geriatric depression. (Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2010; 18: 172-176)

Prevalence and correlates of alcoholism in community-dwelling elderly living in Sao Paulo, Brazil

Objectives To assess the prevalence of alcoholism in elderly living in the city of Sao Paulo (Brazil) and investigate associated risk factors. Methods A total of 1,563 individuals aged 60 years or older, of both genders of three districts of different socioeconomic classes (high, medium and low) in the city of Sao Paulo (Brazil) were interviewed. The CAGE screening test for alcoholism was applied and a structured interview was used to assess associated sociodemographic and clinical factors. The tests Mini Mental State Examination, Fuld Object Memory Evaluation, The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly and Bayer-Activities of Daily Living Scale were used for cognitive and functional assessment. Results Prevalence of alcoholism was 9.1%. Multivariate regression analysis showed that alcoholism was associated with male gender, `mulatto` ethnicity, smoking, and cognitive and functional impairment. In addition, the younger the individual and the lower the schooling level, the higher the risk for alcoholism. Conclusions The results obtained in this study show that alcoholism is highly frequent in the community-dwelling elderly living in Sao Paulo, and that it is associated with socio-demographic and clinical risk factors similar to those reported in the literature. This suggests that alcoholism in the elderly of a developing country shares the same basic characteristics seen in developed countries. These findings suggest that it is essential for health services and professional to be prepared to meet this demand that will significantly grow in the next years, especially in developing countries, where the rates of population aging are higher than those of developed countries. Copyright (C) 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Clinically Significant Depressive Symptoms and Associated Factors in Community Elderly Subjects From Sao Paulo, Brazil

Objectives: To determine the frequency of clinically significant depressive symptoms (CSDS) in a community sample of Brazilian elderly and to assess their relationship with sociodemographic factors, cognitive and functional impairment (CFI), and clinical diseases. Design: Cross-sectional study of a community-based sample of elderly subjects. Setting: City of Sao Paulo, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Participants: A total of 1,563 elderly subjects aged 60 years or older. Measurements: A 10-item scale for screening of depressive symptoms in elderly people (D-10), the Mini Mental State Examination, the Fuld Object Memory Evaluation, the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly, the Bayer Activities of Daily Living Scale, and a sociodemographic and clinical questionnaire. Results: The frequency of CSDS was 13.0%. Univariate analysis identified independent factors associated with these symptoms in our sample. Logistic regression analysis indicated that being female, brown skinned, previously depressed, having CFI, using psychotropics, and not practicing physical exercise were related to CSDS. On the other hand, being older, clinically sick, employed, or married were not associated with CSDS. Conclusions: Consistent with previous reports, female gender, lack of physical activity, and CFI were significantly associated with higher frequencies of CSDS. Further investigations are necessary to clarify the occurrence of depression and possible modifiable factors in developing countries such as Brazil. (Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2009; 17: 582-590)

CAMCOG as a screening tool for diagnosis of Mild Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in a Brazilian clinical sample of moderate to high education

Background The CAMCOG is a brief neuropsychological battery designed to assess global cognitive function and ascertain the impairments that are required for the diagnosis of dementia. To date, the cut-off scores for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) have not been determined. Given the need for an earlier diagnosis of mild dementia, new cut-off values are also necessary, taking into account cultural and educational effects. Methods One hundred and fifty-seven older adults (mean age: 69.6 +/- 7.4 years) with 8 or more years of formal education (mean years of schooling 14.2 +/- 3.8) attending a memory clinic at the Institute of Psychiatry University of Sao Paulo were included. Subjects were divided into three groups according to their cognitive status, established through clinical and neuropsychological assessment: normal controls, n = 62; MCI, n = 65; and mild or moderate dementia, n = 30. ROC curve analyses were performed for dementia vs controls, MCI vs controls and MCI vs dementia. Results The cut-off values were: 92/93 for dementia is controls (AUC = 0.99: sensitivity: 100%, specificity: 95%); 95/96 for MCI vs controls (AUC = 0.83, sensitivity: 64%, specificity: 88%), and 85/86 for MCI vs dementia (AUC = 0.91, sensitivity: 81%, specificity: 88%). The total CAMCOG score was more accurate than its subtests Mini-mental State Examination, Verbal Fluency Test and Clock Drawing Test when used separately. Conclusions The CAMCOG discriminated controls and MCI from demented patients, but was less accurate to discriminate MCI from controls. The best cut-off value to differentiate controls and demented was higher than suggested in the original publication, probably because only cases of mild to moderate dementia were included. This is important given the need for a diagnostic at earlier stages of Alzheimer`s disease. Copyright (C) 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Avaliação da efectividade de uma intervenção em psiquiatria de ligação na doença coronária aguda

RESUMO: Várias intervenções psiquiátricas e psicossociais têm demonstrado ser eficazes na redução da depressão e da ansiedade em indivíduos que sofreram um acidente coronário agudo. A possiblidade de modificarem a evolução da doença coronária e de reduzirem a mortalidade cardíaca continua, no entanto, por comprovar. Este estudo teve como principal objectivo avaliar a efectividade de uma intervenção de Psiquiatria de Ligação (PL) em doentes com cardiopatia isquémica aguda. Métodos: um grupo inicial de 129 doentes consecutivos, internados por Enfarte Agudo do Miocárdio (EAM) ou Angina Instável, numa unidade de cuidados intensivos foi avaliado com a Hospital Anxiety e Depression Scale (HADS). Os doentes que apresentaram uma pontuação ≥8 nas subescalas da Depressão ou da Ansiedade (n=72) foram aleatoriamente distribuídos por grupo de intervenção (GI) (n=37) e grupo de controlo (GC) (n=35). O GI foi sujeito a uma intervenção de PL, realizada durante o período hospitalar, que se iniciou nos primeiros dias de internamento e consistiu em pelo menos 3 sessões individuais (incluindo avaliação psiquiátrica, psicoterapia de suporte, intervenção psicoeducativa e medicação, quando necessário). A sessão pré-alta envolveu o cônjuge e abordou a modificação de comportamentos de risco, a adesão terapêutica e o regresso ao trabalho. O GC recebeu os cuidados habituais da unidade de internamento. Todos os doentes completaram uma entrevista inicial para avaliação do estado cognitivo (Mini Mental State Examination – MMSE), do ajustamento social (Social Problems Questionnaire – SPQ) e de aspectos sociodemográfi cos e clínicos. Os doentes foram reavaliados antes da alta, aos 45 dias, 3 e 6 meses com a HADS, o SPQ e ainda com o Nottingham Health Profi le (NHP) para avaliação da qualidade de vida. No follow-up de 6 meses foi colhida informação sobre sobrevivência, número e duração de reinternamentos, número de dias de baixa e regresso ao trabalho. Resultados: na amostra de 129 doentes avaliados no início do internamento, 20,9% apresentavam níveis de depressão ≥8 na subescala da Depressão (HADS), 53,5% níveis de ansiedade ≥8 na subescala da Ansiedade (HADS) e 9,3% perturbações cognitivas (MMSE). A avaliação longitudinal desta amostra mostrou que os níveis de depressão, inicialmente baixos, aumentaram nos 45 dias após o internamento, para depois diminuírem até ao fi nal do follow-up. Os níveis de ansiedade, que eram inicialmente altos, aumentaram nos 45 dias seguintes e antiveram- se estáveis, mas altos, até ao fi m do estudo. O GI apresentou uma pontuação média na subescala da depressão signifi cativamente inferior à do GC no follow-up de 6 meses (5,8±4,1 no GI vs. 7,9±4,3 no GC, p=0,04). O número de doentes deprimidos foi signifi cativamente menor no GI nas avaliações realizadas aos 3 meses (11 vs. 18 no GC, p=0,04) e aos 6 meses (12 vs. 18 no GC, p= 0,05). O mesmo aconteceu com o número de doentes ansiosos aos 3 meses (15 no GI vs. 23 no GC, p=0,01). As dimensões do NHP “Isolamento social” aos 45 dias e “Reacção emocional” aos 45 dias e aos 3 meses, bem como a qualidade de vida geral (NHP 2ª parte) aos 3 meses, mostraram melhoria signifi cativa no grupo de intervenção. Embora a intervenção tenha reduzido o nível médio da ansiedade nas várias avaliações após a alta, esta redução não atingiu signifi cância estatística. A intervenção realizada não teve impacto na mortalidade ou nas variáveis relacionadas com a evolução da doença cardíaca no período do follow-up. Conclusões: Os resultados do presente estudo mostram a alta prevalência de depressão e de ansiedade após um acidente coronário agudo e a manutenção de níveis altos de ansiedade nos 6 meses seguintes. Os resultados comprovam também a efectividade de uma intervenção em PL no tratamento da depressão e da ansiedade em doentes que sofreram um acidente coronário agudo. Estes resultados apontam para a necessidade de desenvolvimento de programas de PL para este tipo de doentes, tanto no hospital geral como nos cuidados de saúde primários. Sugerem ainda a necessidade de desenvolvimento de investigação que permita estabelecer o impacto específi co dos diversos tipos de intervenção, assim como compreender os mecanismos subjacentes à associação da depressão e da ansiedade com a doença coronária.----------ABSTRACT:Different types of psychiatric and psychochosocial interventions have proven effi cacy in decreasing anxiety and depression in coronary heart disease. There is, however, an ongoing discussion about the impact these interventions may have on the clinical outcome and on cardiac mortality. The main objective of the current study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a consultation liaison psychiatry (CL) intervention on a group of patients admitted with Myocardial Infarction or Unstable Angina, to a Coronary Care Unit. Methods: The study had a prospective, randomised, controlled design, with a 6-month follow-up. One hundred and twenty-nine consecutive patients were assessed during the first 48 hours of admission with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Those with a score of ≥8 on the Depression or the Anxiety subscales (n=72) were randomly allocated to intervention (n=37) and usual care (n=35). The CL intervention, started during the fi rst days of admission, had a minimum of 3 (60 minutes) sessions, and included a psychiatric evaluation, supportive psychotherapy, a psychoeducational intervention, when necessary, psychotropic drugs. The last session, shortly before discharge, included the spouse and was focused on compliance, modifi cation of behavioral risk factors, and possible diffi culties upon returning to work. Cognitive status (Mini-Mental State Examination - MMSE), social adjustment (Social Problems Questionnaire - SPQ), and demographic and clinical characteristics were also assessed at baseline. Patients were reassessed before discharge, and at 45 days, 3 and 6 months after admission with HADS, SPQ, and with Nottingham Health Profile (NHP) for quality of life. Survival, number of readmissions and days of readmission, number of sickleave days and return to work were assessed at six months. Results: The initial sample of 129 patients, presented a 20.9% prevalence of depressive symptoms, 53.5% of anxiety symptoms, and 9.3% of cognitive disorders. The longitudinal evaluation of this sample showed that the initially low levels of depression were increased 45 days later, and slowlly decreased afterwards till the 6-month follow-up. Initially high anxiety levels, somewhat decreased before discharge, had increased 45 days later, and stayed stable and high till the end of the study. The intervention group showed a signifi cantly lower depression mean score at 6 months (5.8±4.1 vs. 7.9±4.3 in the controls, p=0.04). The number of patients considered depressed was lower in the intervention group at 3(11 vs. 18 controls, p=0.04) and 6 months (12vs. 18 controls, p=0,05). The number of anxious patients was also lower in the intervention.

Personality traits and behavioral and psychological symptoms in patients at an early stage of Alzheimer's disease.

OBJECTIVE: The origins of behavioral and psychological symptoms (BPS) in Alzheimer's disease (AD) are still poorly understood. Focusing on individual personality structure, we explored the relationship between premorbid personality and its changes over 5 years, and BPS in patients at an early stage of AD. METHOD: A total of 54 patients at an early stage of AD according to ICD-10 and NINCDS-ADRDA criteria and 64 control subjects were included. Family members filled in the Neuropsychiatric Inventory Questionnaire to evaluate their proxies' current BPS and the NEO Personality Inventory Revised twice, the first time to evaluate the participants' current personality and the second time to assess personality traits as they were remembered to be 5 years earlier. RESULTS: Behavioral and psychological symptoms, in particular apathy, depression, anxiety, and agitation, are frequent occurrences in early stage AD. Premorbid personality differed between AD patients and normal control, but it was not predictive of BPS in patients with AD. Personality traits clearly change in the course of beginning AD, and this change seems to develop in parallel with BPS as early signs of AD. CONCLUSIONS: Premorbid personality was not associated with BPS in early stage of AD, although complex and non-linear relationships between the two are not excluded. However, both personality and behavioral changes occur early in the course of AD, and recognizing them as possible, early warning signs of neurodegeneration may prove to be a key factor for early detection and intervention. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A longitudinal study on delirium in nursing homes.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the evolution of delirium of nursing home (NH) residents and their possible predictors. DESIGN: Post-hoc analysis of a prospective cohort assessment. SETTING: Ninety NHs in Switzerland. PARTICIPANTS: Included 14,771 NH residents. MEASUREMENTS: The Resident Assessment Instrument Minimum Data Set and the Nursing Home Confusion Assessment Method were used to determine follow-up of subsyndromal or full delirium in NH residents using discrete Markov chain modeling to describe long-term trajectories and multiple logistic regression analyses to determine predictors of the trajectories. RESULTS: We identified four major types of delirium time courses in NH. Increasing severity of cognitive impairment and of depressive symptoms at the initial assessment predicted the different delirium time courses. CONCLUSION: More pronounced cognitive impairment and depressive symptoms at the initial assessment are associated with different subsequent evolutions of delirium. The presence and evolution of delirium in the first year after NH admission predicted the subsequent course of delirium until death.

Social support group interventions in people with dementia and mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review of the literature

Abstract Despite the large number of studies evaluating social support groups for people with dementia, there are no systematic reviews of current evidence.The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of social support group interventions for people with dementia and mild cognitive impairment.A systematic review was performed. We searched electronic databases for randomised controlled trials. Two reviewers worked independently to select trials, extract data and assess risk of bias. A total of 546 studies were identified of which two met the inclusion criteria. We were not able to pool data for further analyses, as the interventions tested in the studies meeting the inclusion criteria were too dissimilar in content.The first trial (n = 136) showed a benefit of early-stage memory loss social support groups for depression and quality of life in people with dementia.The second trial (n = 33) showed that post-treatment self-reported self-esteem was higher in the group receiving a multicomponent intervention of social support compared with that in the no intervention control group.Limited data from two studies suggest that support groups may be of psychological benefit to people with dementia by reducing depression and improving quality of life and self-esteem.These findings need to be viewed in light of the small number, small sample size and heterogeneous characteristics of current trials, indicating that it is difficult to draw any conclusions. More multicentre randomised controlled trials in social support group interventions for people with dementia are needed.������������

Neuroanatomical and neuropsychological features of euthymic patients with bipolar disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies reported that the severity of cognitive deficits in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder (BD) increases with the duration of illness and postulated that progressive neuronal loss or shrinkage and white matter changes may be at the origin of this phenomenon. To explore this issue, the authors performed a case-control study including detailed neuropsychological and magnetic resonance imaging analyses in 17 euthymic elderly patients with BD and 17 healthy individuals. METHODS: Neuropsychological evaluation concerned working memory, episodic memory, processing speed, and executive functions. Volumetric estimates of the amygdala, hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex were obtained using both voxel-based and region of interest morphometric methods. Periventricular and deep white matter were assessed semiquantitatively. Differences in cognitive performances and structural data between BD and comparison groups were analyzed using paired t-test or analysis of variance. Wilcoxon test was used in the absence of normal distribution. RESULTS: Compared with healthy individuals, patients with BD obtained significantly lower performances in processing speed, working memory, and episodic memory but not in executive functions. Morphometric analyses did not show significant volumetric or white matter differences between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our results revealed impairment in verbal memory, working memory, and processing speed in euthymic older adults with BD. These cognitive deficits are comparable both in terms of affected functions and size effects to those previously reported in younger cohorts with BD. Both this observation and the absence of structural brain abnormalities in our cohort do not support a progressively evolving neurotoxic effect in BD.