CO2浓度升高对羊草草原生产力和碳平衡的影响

自工业革命以来，大气的C02浓度以前所未有的速度增加，已经由280μmol mol-1升高到了360μmol mol-l。据预测，到下个世纪中／末期，C02浓度将为目前的二倍。C02浓度升高及其引起的全球气候变化必将影响到植物的生长发育，进而对整个生态系统产生巨大影响。因此，有关C02浓度升高对各类生态系统的影响的研究引起了广泛关注，成为近年来的研究热点。早期的研究多数集中于考察C02浓度升高对植物个体水平生长发育的影响。然而，高C02对植物的效应严重依赖于具体物种和具体环境条件，使得基于由短期盆栽实验获得的研究结果不能够有效地预测自然生态系统的行为。因此，长期、原位处理实验越来越受到重视。由于原位研究的难度较大，目前这方面的研究还不是很多。有限研究结果显示，由于生境条件和种间关系方面的巨大差异，自然生态系统对C02浓度升高的反应迥异。 草原生态系统由于C02浓度控制上比较容易实现，而且其物质循环相对较快，因而一直是C02富集实验研究最多的一类植被，生态系统水平的研究更是如此。然而涉及的区域和草原类型并不多，不足以进行可靠预测。目前，关于C02升高效应，研究比较系统的草原生态系统主要集中在：美国Kansas的高草草原、美国California的一年生草原、瑞士西北部的石灰质草原、美国Colorado的矮草草原和一些牧场。我国总土地面积的40%为草地，类型丰富，然而相关研究不多，尤其是对自然生态系统的原位研究几乎为空白。 为揭示C02浓度升高对羊草草原生产力和碳平衡的效应，我们在中国科学院内蒙古草原生态系统定位研究站的永久羊草样地开展了两年的C02倍增实验(2001，2002)。在羊草样地选择相对均匀地段设置12个开顶式气室（直径1.8m），每个气室内分成4个小样方(0.5m×0.5m)，其中6个气室在生长季给予加倍C02处理（约600μmol mol-l），另6个气室不补充C02（约300μmol moI-l）。地上部分用收割法取样，分种记录数量、高度和重量等指标，地下部分取样用环刀法。用Li-cor6400光合系统测定群落光合和呼吸速率。野外实验结束后，统一分析植物和土壤样品中的C、N等元素含量。另外，在内蒙古草原站院内设置了两组桶培实验，一组是取自羊草样地的带苗原状土，一组是取自羊草样地的混匀土，种上冰草(Agropyron cristatum)、紫花苜蓿(Medicago sativa)和无芒雀麦(Bromus inermis)的种子。2组桶培实验分别用两个水分梯度和两个C02梯度处理。水分处理分别为：浇水处理——每4天浇lOOOml水，相当于平均降雨量的160%;干旱处理——持续干旱，适时补水以保持植物不萎蔫，共浇水4000ml水。C02处理和取样方法与样地原位实验相同。主要研究结果和结论如下： 1)两年的C02加倍处理没有使羊草草原的生物量、植物种和功能型组成发生显著改变，桶培实验中，浇水处理显著促进了植物生长，原状土植物、种子苗实验的冰草和无芒雀麦对C02加倍处理同样不敏感，而种子苗实验的豆科植物紫花苜蓿在C02加倍处理下生物量显著提高。以上结果显示，由于水分和养分（特别是N）的限制，以及优势植物对C02的相对不敏感，C02浓度升高对羊草草原地上生物量和结构的效应相对不大。 2)羊草草原的根垂直分布在加倍C02条件下发生显著改变，但根生物量对C02加倍处 理相对不敏感。在4次取样中只有一次对C02加倍处理表现出显著变化，根长的变化与根生物量的变化不完全一致，根的比根长在加倍C02条件下增加。根垂直分布的变化趋势与降雨的时间分布相适应，干旱少雨时期C02使下层根量增加，多雨时期C02则使上层根量增加。以上结果显示，根的空间分布比根生物量对C02加倍处理更敏感。水分是根空间分布变化的驱动因子，加倍C02条件下，根空间分布的变化趋势倾向于优化对水分的充分利用。 3)加倍C02处理使羊草草原的群落光合速率显著提高，群落呼吸速率显著降低，因而使群落碳净输入量增加。土壤碳贮量占羊草草原碳总贮量的70%以上，碳总贮量及其组分（包括地上碳贮量、根碳贮量、土壤碳贮量）在两个C02浓度处理之问均没有显著差异。另外，加倍C02处理使羊草草原群落及其优势植物羊草的c：N比增加。以上结果显示，在加倍C02条件下羊草草原的碳净输入量增加，这意味着在未来高 C02条件F，羊草草原将作为碳汇对大气C02起反馈调节作用。其碳贮量对加倍C02 处理的不敏感与许多以前的研究结果相似，一般认为是由于土壤碳贮量本底太大， 掩盖了C02效应，这还有待于更长期原位实验的证实。羊草草原群落c：N比在高C02 浓度下的变化将影响凋落物降解、N素循环和动植物营养关系等，进而对生态系统 功能产生深远影响。

水稻对大气二氧化碳浓度及温度升高的光合适应的研究

基于长期观测资料，众多大气环流模型预测在二十一世纪末大气中二氧化碳浓度将达到700μmolmol'I，地球表面年平均温度也将升高1.5-4.OoC。水稻是亚洲的主要粮食作物，为世界近三分之一的人口提供食物能源。这项工作的目的，是利用人工模拟环境，预测在未来全球气候变化，二氧化碳及温度升高的条件下，水稻的光合生理反应及随之而来的对其产量的影响。本研究是美国环境署( EPA)与国际水稻研究所(IRRI)合作研究项目“Effects of UV-B and Global Climate Change on Rice”的一部分． 在这项研究中，采用了特殊设计并直接建立在水稻田间的开顶式气室（open-top chambers）。在此之前还没有这样大规模的在水稻主产区的此类模拟研究，水稻在气室中渡过了从萌发到收获的整个生长过程。模拟环境条件有三个浓度的二氧化碳（包括现有大气浓度，在此基础上升高200及300 μmolmol-l）和两个温度（即：现有大气温度及升高4度）共六个处理。供试水稻品种四个：IR72，IR65598-112-2，IR65600-42-5-2-BSI-313和N22。在实验中我们发现，水稻品种（如：1R72）单叶光合速率（以二氧化碳气体交换速率计）受二氧化碳浓度促进，在水稻营养生长期，二氧化碳及温度对其光合有协同促进作用．然而，随着花期的到来，在高温条件下，叶片光合能力（photosynthetic capacity）下降，出现光合适应现象（Photosynthetic acclirnation）.水稻群体光合作用同样受到二氧化碳浓度促进，但在后期(Grain fill stage)这种促进作用消失;在高浓度二氧化碳下生长的大多数水稻品种的叶片中有较多的碳水化和物（可溶性糖和淀粉）积累．耐高温品种N22叶片中淀粉积累较少：叶片中氮素含量降低，同时发现Rubisco总活性相应降低，这与NCi曲线所示光合效率降低相吻合;通过叶片叶绿素荧光动力学测定，没有发现光系统光能转化效率的变化;水稻籽粒产量随二氧化碳浓度升高而增加，但温度升高使产量降低12.8-36.8%;不同品种对二氧化碳浓度的反应没有显著差别;在高温条件下，耐高温品生长在高二氧化碳浓度下表现良好。 本文系统地研究了水稻光合作用在二氧化碳及温度条件影响下，对二氧化碳浓度及光强变化的反应曲线，初次对水稻单叶与群体光合对二氧化碳浓度变化的反应做了实验性对比;讨论了温度升高对水稻在高浓度二氧化碳下发生光合适应的影响，对光合适应现象的可能机制做了探讨，并提出对未来大气二氧化碳浓度及温度升高条件下水稻适应品种筛选的可能方向。

Elevated concentration of TNF-a induces trophoblast differentiation in mouse blastocyst outgrowths

Elevated expression of tumour necrosis factora (TNF-a) is associated with adverse pregnancy outcome. This study has examined the expression of TNF-a and its receptors (TNF-Rs) by mouse blastocysts and blastocyst outgrowths from day 4 to 9.5 of pregnancy and investigated the effects of elevated TNF-a on the inner cell mass (ICM) and trophoblast cells of blastocyst outgrowths. RTPCR demonstrated TNF-a mRNA expression from day 7.5 to 9.5, TNF-R1 from day 6.5 to 9.5 and TNF-R2 from day 5.5 to 7.5 of pregnancy, and in situ hybridisation revealed the trophoblast giant cells (TGCs) of the early placenta as the site of TNF-a expression. Day 4 blastocysts were cultured in a physiologically high concentration of TNF-a (100 ng/ml) for 72 h to the outgrowth stage and then compared to blastocysts cultured in media alone. TNF-a-treated blastocyst outgrowths exhibited a significant reduction in ICM cells (mean € SD 23.90€10.42 vs 9.37€7.45, t-test, P<0.0001) with no significant change in the numbers of trophoblast cells (19.97€8.14 vs 21.73€7.79, t-test, P=0.39). Within the trophoblast cell population, the TNF-a-treated outgrowths exhibited a significant increase in multinucleated cells (14.10€5.53 vs 6.37€5.80, t-test, P<0.0001) and a corresponding significant decrease in mononucleated cells (5.87€3.60 vs 15.37€5.87, t-test, P<0.0001). In summary, this study describes the expression of TNF-a and its receptors during the peri-implantation period in the mouse. It also reports that elevated TNF-a restricts ICM proliferation in the blastocyst and changes the ratio of mononucleated to multinucleated trophoblast cells. These findings suggest a mechanism by which increased

Behaviour and design of cold-formed steel compression members at elevated temperatures

Cold-formed steel members have been widely used in residential, industrial and commercial buildings as primary load bearing structural elements and non-load bearing structural elements (partitions) due to their advantages such as higher strength to weight ratio over the other structural materials such as hot-rolled steel, timber and concrete. Cold-formed steel members are often made from thin steel sheets and hence they are more susceptible to various buckling modes. Generally short columns are susceptible to local or distortional buckling while long columns to flexural or flexural-torsional buckling. Fire safety design of building structures is an essential requirement as fire events can cause loss of property and lives. Therefore it is essential to understand the fire performance of light gauge cold-formed steel structures under fire conditions. The buckling behaviour of cold-formed steel compression members under fire conditions is not well investigated yet and hence there is a lack of knowledge on the fire performance of cold-formed steel compression members. Current cold-formed steel design standards do not provide adequate design guidelines for the fire design of cold-formed steel compression members. Therefore a research project based on extensive experimental and numerical studies was undertaken at the Queensland University of Technology to investigate the buckling behaviour of light gauge cold-formed steel compression members under simulated fire conditions. As the first phase of this research, a detailed review was undertaken on the mechanical properties of light gauge cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures and the most reliable predictive models for mechanical properties and stress-strain models based on detailed experimental investigations were identified. Their accuracy was verified experimentally by carrying out a series of tensile coupon tests at ambient and elevated temperatures. As the second phase of this research, local buckling behaviour was investigated based on the experimental and numerical investigations at ambient and elevated temperatures. First a series of 91 local buckling tests was carried out at ambient and elevated temperatures on lipped and unlipped channels made of G250-0.95, G550-0.95, G250-1.95 and G450-1.90 cold-formed steels. Suitable finite element models were then developed to simulate the experimental conditions. These models were converted to ideal finite element models to undertake detailed parametric study. Finally all the ultimate load capacity results for local buckling were compared with the available design methods based on AS/NZS 4600, BS 5950 Part 5, Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 and the direct strength method (DSM), and suitable recommendations were made for the fire design of cold-formed steel compression members subject to local buckling. As the third phase of this research, flexural-torsional buckling behaviour was investigated experimentally and numerically. Two series of 39 flexural-torsional buckling tests were undertaken at ambient and elevated temperatures. The first series consisted 2800 mm long columns of G550-0.95, G250-1.95 and G450-1.90 cold-formed steel lipped channel columns while the second series contained 1800 mm long lipped channel columns of the same steel thickness and strength grades. All the experimental tests were simulated using a suitable finite element model, and the same model was used in a detailed parametric study following validation. Based on the comparison of results from the experimental and parametric studies with the available design methods, suitable design recommendations were made. This thesis presents a detailed description of the experimental and numerical studies undertaken on the mechanical properties and the local and flexural-torsional bucking behaviour of cold-formed steel compression member at ambient and elevated temperatures. It also describes the currently available ambient temperature design methods and their accuracy when used for fire design with appropriately reduced mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. Available fire design methods are also included and their accuracy in predicting the ultimate load capacity at elevated temperatures was investigated. This research has shown that the current ambient temperature design methods are capable of predicting the local and flexural-torsional buckling capacities of cold-formed steel compression members at elevated temperatures with the use of reduced mechanical properties. However, the elevated temperature design method in Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 is overly conservative and hence unsuitable, particularly in the case of flexural-torsional buckling at elevated temperatures.

Experimental study of the mechanical properties of light gauge cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures

In recent times, light gauge cold-formed steel sections have been used extensively as primary load bearing structural members in many applications in the building industry. Fire safety design of structures using such sections has therefore become more important. Deterioration of mechanical properties of yield stress and elasticity modulus is considered the most important factor affecting the performance of steel structures in fires. Hence there is a need to fully understand the mechanical properties of light gauge cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures. A research project based on experimental studies was therefore undertaken to investigate the deterioration of mechanical properties of light gauge cold-formed steels. Tensile coupon tests were undertaken to determine the mechanical properties of these steels made of both low and high strength steels and thicknesses of 0.60, 0.80 and 0.95 mm at temperatures ranging from 20 to 800ºC. Test results showed that the currently available reduction factors are unsafe to use in the fire safety design of cold-formed steel structures. Therefore new predictive equations were developed for the mechanical properties of yield strength and elasticity modulus at elevated temperatures. This paper presents the details of the experimental study, and the results including the developed equations. It also includes details of a stress-strain model for light gauge cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures.

Distortional buckling tests of cold-formed steel compression members at elevated temperatures

In recent times, light gauge cold-formed steel sections have been used extensively since they have a very high strength to weight ratio compared with thicker hot-rolled steel sections. However, they are susceptible to various buckling modes including a distortional mode and hence show complex behaviour under fire conditions. Therefore a research project based on detailed experimental studies was undertaken to investigate the distortional buckling behaviour of light gauge cold-formed steel compression members under simulated fire conditions. More than 150 axial compression tests were undertaken at uniform ambient and elevated temperatures. Two types of cross sections were selected with nominal thicknesses of 0.60, 0.80, and 0.95 mm. Both low (G250) and high (G550) strength steels were used. Distortional buckling tests were conducted at six different temperatures in the range of 20 to 800°C. The ultimate loads of compression members subject to distortional buckling were then used to review the adequacy of the current design rules at ambient and elevated temperatures. This paper presents the details of this experimental study and the results.

Structural behaviour and design of cold-formed steel beams at elevated temperatures

Cold-formed steel members are extensively used in the building construction industry, especially in residential, commercial and industrial buildings. In recent times, fire safety has become important in structural design due to increased fire damage to properties and loss of lives. However, past research into the fire performance of cold-formed steel members has been limited, and was confined to compression members. Therefore a research project was undertaken to investigate the structural behaviour of compact cold-formed steel lipped channel beams subject to inelastic local buckling and yielding, and lateral-torsional buckling effects under simulated fire conditions and associated section and member moment capacities. In the first phase of this research, an experimental study based on tensile coupon tests was undertaken to obtain the mechanical properties of elastic modulus and yield strength and the stress-strain relationship of cold-formed steels at uniform ambient and elevated temperatures up to 700oC. The mechanical properties deteriorated with increasing temperature and are likely to reduce the strength of cold-formed beams under fire conditions. Predictive equations were developed for yield strength and elastic modulus reduction factors while a modification was proposed for the stressstrain model at elevated temperatures. These results were used in the numerical modelling phases investigating the section and member moment capacities. The second phase of this research involved the development and validation of two finite element models to simulate the behaviour of compact cold-formed steel lipped channel beams subject to local buckling and yielding, and lateral-torsional buckling effects. Both models were first validated for elastic buckling. Lateral-torsional buckling tests of compact lipped channel beams were conducted at ambient temperature in order to validate the finite element model in predicting the non-linear ultimate strength behaviour. The results from this experimental study did not agree well with those from the developed experimental finite element model due to some unavoidable problems with testing. However, it highlighted the importance of magnitude and direction of initial geometric imperfection as well as the failure direction, and thus led to further enhancement of the finite element model. The finite element model for lateral-torsional buckling was then validated using the available experimental and numerical ultimate moment capacity results from past research. The third phase based on the validated finite element models included detailed parametric studies of section and member moment capacities of compact lipped channel beams at ambient temperature, and provided the basis for similar studies at elevated temperatures. The results showed the existence of inelastic reserve capacity for compact cold-formed steel beams at ambient temperature. However, full plastic capacity was not achieved by the mono-symmetric cold-formed steel beams. Suitable recommendations were made in relation to the accuracy and suitability of current design rules for section moment capacity. Comparison of member capacity results from finite element analyses with current design rules showed that they do not give accurate predictions of lateral-torsional buckling capacities at ambient temperature and hence new design rules were developed. The fourth phase of this research investigated the section and member moment capacities of compact lipped channel beams at uniform elevated temperatures based on detailed parametric studies using the validated finite element models. The results showed the existence of inelastic reserve capacity at elevated temperatures. Suitable recommendations were made in relation to the accuracy and suitability of current design rules for section moment capacity in fire design codes, ambient temperature design codes as well as those proposed by other researchers. The results showed that lateral-torsional buckling capacities are dependent on the ratio of yield strength and elasticity modulus reduction factors and the level of non-linearity in the stress-strain curves at elevated temperatures in addition to the temperature. Current design rules do not include the effects of non-linear stress-strain relationship and therefore their predictions were found to be inaccurate. Therefore a new design rule that uses a nonlinearity factor, which is defined as the ratio of the limit of proportionality to the yield stress at a given temperature, was developed for cold-formed steel beams subject to lateral-torsional buckling at elevated temperatures. This thesis presents the details and results of the experimental and numerical studies conducted in this research including a comparison of results with predictions using available design rules. It also presents the recommendations made regarding the accuracy of current design rules as well as the new developed design rules for coldformed steel beams both at ambient and elevated temperatures.

Mechanical properties of cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures

Mechanical properties have an important role in the fire safety design of cold-formed steel structures due to the rapid reduction in mechanical properties such as yield strength and elastic modulus under fire conditions and associated reduction to the load carrying capacities. Hence there is a need to fully understand the deterioration characteristics of yield strength and elastic modulus of cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures. Although past research has produced useful experimental data on the mechanical properties of cold-formed steels at elevated temperatures, such data do not yet cover different cold-formed steel grades and thicknesses. Therefore, an experimental study was undertaken to investigate the elevated temperature mechanical properties of two low and high strength steels with two thicknesses that are commonly used in Australia. Tensile coupon tests were undertaken using a steady state test method for temperatures in the range 20–700 °C. Test results were compared with the currently available reduction factors for yield strength and elastic modulus, and stress–strain curves, based on which further improvements were made. For this purpose, test results of many other cold-formed steels were also used based on other similar studies undertaken at the Queensland University of Technology. Improved equations were developed to predict the yield strength and elastic modulus reduction factors and stress–strain curves of a range of cold-formed steel grades and thicknesses used in Australia. This paper presents the results of this experimental study, comparisons with the results of past research and steel design standards, and the new predictive equations.