Le formalisme du contrat électronique dans l’ASEAN : définition et interprétation des notions d’écrit et de signature

Plus de dix ans après la mise en place du projet d’harmonisation du droit du commerce électronique, l’ASEAN, « The Association of Southeast Asian Nations » rassemblant dix États membres en Asie du Sud-est, n’arrive toujours pas à doter chacun de ses États membres d’une législation harmonisée en la matière. Dans cette optique, nous tenterons, pour contribuer à cette harmonisation, de démontrer la situation problématique relative au droit du commerce électronique dans six des dix États membres de l’ASEAN où, en plus de leur non-uniformité législative, les textes nationaux régissant le formalisme du contrat électronique demeurent difficiles à comprendre, à interpréter et donc à appliquer ; ce qui cause parfois des erreurs interprétatives voire l’oubli total de ces textes. Cette expérience n’est pas unique dans l’ASEAN, car l’on trouve également de similaires situations dans d’autres juridictions, telles que le Canada et les États-Unis. Pour pallier cette rupture entre la loi et la jurisprudence, nous proposons une quête d’une méthode d’interprétation comme une piste de solution qui nous semble la plus pertinente au regard de l’état des textes déjà en vigueur et de l’objectif de l’harmonisation du droit du commerce électronique dans l’ASEAN. Parmi les méthodes interprétatives très variées, nous arrivons à identifier la méthode contextuelle, aussi large soit-elle, comme la méthode la plus pertinente eu égard aux caractéristiques particulières du formalisme du contrat électronique, à savoir l’écrit et la signature électroniques. Nous proposons donc une grille d’analyse de cette méthode composée de contextes juridique, technique et social, qui aideront les juristes, surtout les juges, à mieux saisir le sens des textes et à leur donner « une meilleure interprétation » en faveur de l’objectif de l’harmonisation du droit dans l’ASEAN.

La teneur du standard de fiabilité des moyens électroniques de signature

Les institutions juridiques ont été bâties autour des réalités connues depuis des millénaires, que nous appelons de nos jours des phénomènes du monde réel. Ces phénomènes retrouvent présentement un nouveau théâtre – le cyberespace, et les règles du droit font face au défi de s’approprier ce nouvel environnement. Entre autres, les technologies du cyberespace ont mis au monde divers moyens qui nous permettent de nous identifier et de manifester notre attitude envers les actes juridiques – des finalités qui ont été assurées de longue date par la signature manuscrite. Bien que ces nouveaux moyens aient mérité un nom similaire à leur contrepartie traditionnelle – l’appellation de signature électronique, ils restent des phénomènes dont la proximité avec la signature manuscrite est discutable. Force est de constater que le seul point commun entre les moyens classiques et électroniques de signer réside dans les fonctions qu’ils remplissent. C’est en se basant sur ces fonctions communes que le droit a adopté une attitude identique envers les moyens d’authentification traditionnels et électroniques et a accueilli ces derniers sous l’emprise de ses institutions. Cependant, ceci ne signifie pas que ces institutions se soient avérées appropriées et qu’elles ne demandent aucun ajustement. Un des buts de notre étude sera de mettre en relief les moyens d’adaptation qu’offre le droit pour réconcilier ces deux environnements. Ainsi, pour ajuster l’institution de la signature aux phénomènes électroniques, le droit s’est tourné vers le standard de fiabilité de la signature électronique. Le standard de fiabilité est un complément de l’institution juridique de signature qui ne se rapporte qu’à la signature électronique et dont cette étude démontrera les applications. Les composantes du standard de fiabilité qui occuperont un deuxième volet de notre étude représentent un ensemble de règles techniques liées à la signature électronique. Ainsi, comme le standard de fiabilité puise sa substance dans les propriétés de l’architecture du cyberespace, l’attitude du droit envers la signature électronique s’avère tributaire de la morphologie du cyberespace. Étant donné que les possibilités qui nous sont offertes par la technologie continue à déterminer la réglementation juridique, il est légitime de conclure que l’examen des tendances dans l’évolution du cyberespace nous fournira un point de vue prospectif sur l’évolution des règles du droit.

Droit de la preuve appliqué au commerce électronique au Canada: droit civil / common law

Cet article traite des règles de preuve dans un contexte électronique, et souligne les différences et similitudes entre les systèmes retenus par les provinces de common law et de droit civil. Il présente certains principes généraux, ainsi qu’un bref survol du droit de la preuve face à l’avènement de l’immatériel. Il englobe une analyse des règles d’admissibilité de la preuve telles que la règle de la meilleure preuve, et l’exception au ouï-dire, ainsi que la force probante des documents électroniques. Il envisage, enfin une application pratique, soit la signature électronique.

Response to: Electronic health records and healthcare identifiers : legislation discussion paper

Public submission # 029 to a Australian federal parliamentary committee considering proposed legislative changes to the Commonwealth's Healthcare Identifiers Act 2010 and the Personally Controlled Electronic Health Records Act 2012.

Colonial legislation on the subject of education : two letters, originally addressed to the editor of the Hamilton gazette under the signature of Scotus.

Mode of access: Internet.

Electronic workplace surveillance and employee privacy : a comparative analysis of privacy protection in Australia and the United States

More than a century ago in their definitive work “The Right to Privacy” Samuel D. Warren and Louis D. Brandeis highlighted the challenges posed to individual privacy by advancing technology. Today’s workplace is characterised by its reliance on computer technology, particularly the use of email and the Internet to perform critical business functions. Increasingly these and other workplace activities are the focus of monitoring by employers. There is little formal regulation of electronic monitoring in Australian or United States workplaces. Without reasonable limits or controls, this has the potential to adversely affect employees’ privacy rights. Australia has a history of legislating to protect privacy rights, whereas the United States has relied on a combination of constitutional guarantees, federal and state statutes, and the common law. This thesis examines a number of existing and proposed statutory and other workplace privacy laws in Australia and the United States. The analysis demonstrates that existing measures fail to adequately regulate monitoring or provide employees with suitable remedies where unjustifiable intrusions occur. The thesis ultimately supports the view that enacting uniform legislation at the national level provides a more effective and comprehensive solution for both employers and employees. Chapter One provides a general introduction and briefly discusses issues relevant to electronic monitoring in the workplace. Chapter Two contains an overview of privacy law as it relates to electronic monitoring in Australian and United States workplaces. In Chapter Three there is an examination of the complaint process and remedies available to a hypothetical employee (Mary) who is concerned about protecting her privacy rights at work. Chapter Four provides an analysis of the major themes emerging from the research, and also discusses the draft national uniform legislation. Chapter Five details the proposed legislation in the form of the Workplace Surveillance and Monitoring Act, and Chapter Six contains the conclusion.

Land fraud and inappropriate dealings in an electronic environment : An Australian and New Zealand perspective

The thesis presented in this paper is that the land fraud committed by Matthew Perrin in Queensland and inflicted upon Roger Mildenhall in Western Australia demonstrates the need for urgent procedural reform to the conveyancing process. Should this not occur, then calls to reform the substantive principles of the Torrens system will be heard throughout the jurisdictions that adopt title by registration, particularly in those places where immediate indefeasibility is still the norm. This paper closely examines the factual matrix behind both of these frauds, and asks what steps should have been taken to prevent them occurring. With 2012 bringing us Australian legislation embedding a national e-conveyancing system and a new Land Transfer Act for New Zealand we ask what legislative measures should be introduced to minimise the potential for such fraud. In undertaking this study, we reflect on whether the activities of Perrin and the criminals responsible for stealing Mildenhall's land would have succeeded under the present system for automated registration utilised in New Zealand.

Email negotiations form a binding land contract without a 'signature'

Email is rapidly replacing other forms of communication as the preferred means of communication between contracting parties. The recent decision of Stellard Pty Ltd v North Queensland Fuel Pty Ltd [2015] QSC 119 reinforces the judicial acceptance of email as an effective means of creating a binding agreement and the willingness to adopt a liberal concept of ‘signing’ in an electronic environment.

Electronic states in disordered topological insulators

We present a theoretical study of electronic states in topological insulators with impurities. Chiral edge states in 2d topological insulators and helical surface states in 3d topological insulators show a robust transport against nonmagnetic impurities. Such a nontrivial character inspired physicists to come up with applications such as spintronic devices [1], thermoelectric materials [2], photovoltaics [3], and quantum computation [4]. Not only has it provided new opportunities from a practical point of view, but its theoretical study has deepened the understanding of the topological nature of condensed matter systems. However, experimental realizations of topological insulators have been challenging. For example, a 2d topological insulator fabricated in a HeTe quantum well structure by Konig et al. [5] shows a longitudinal conductance which is not well quantized and varies with temperature. 3d topological insulators such as Bi₂Se₃ and Bi₂Te₃ exhibit not only a signature of surface states, but they also show a bulk conduction [6]. The series of experiments motivated us to study the effects of impurities and coexisting bulk Fermi surface in topological insulators. We first address a single impurity problem in a topological insulator using a semiclassical approach. Then we study the conductance behavior of a disordered topological-metal strip where bulk modes are associated with the transport of edge modes via impurity scattering. We verify that the conduction through a chiral edge channel retains its topological signature, and we discovered that the transmission can be succinctly expressed in a closed form as a ratio of determinants of the bulk Green's function and impurity potentials. We further study the transport of 1d systems which can be decomposed in terms of chiral modes. Lastly, the surface impurity effect on the local density of surface states over layers into the bulk is studied between weak and strong disorder strength limits.

Low-cost digital signature architecture suitable for radio frequency identification tags

Continuing achievements in hardware technology are bringing ubiquitous computing closer to reality. The notion of a connected, interactive and autonomous environment is common to all sensor networks, biosystems and radio frequency identification (RFID) devices, and the emergence of significant deployments and sophisticated applications can be expected. However, as more information is collected and transmitted, security issues will become vital for such a fully connected environment. In this study the authors consider adding security features to low-cost devices such as RFID tags. In particular, the authors consider the implementation of a digital signature architecture that can be used for device authentication, to prevent tag cloning, and for data authentication to prevent transmission forgery. The scheme is built around the signature variant of the cryptoGPS identification scheme and the SHA-1 hash function. When implemented on 130 nm CMOS the full design uses 7494 gates and consumes 4.72 mu W of power, making it smaller and more power efficient than previous low-cost digital signature designs. The study also presents a low-cost SHA-1 hardware architecture which is the smallest standardised hash function design to date.

Methods to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires

Background: Postal and electronic questionnaires are widely used for data collection in epidemiological studies but non-response reduces the effective sample size and can introduce bias. Finding ways to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires would improve the quality of health research. Objectives: To identify effective strategies to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires. Search strategy: We searched 14 electronic databases to February 2008 and manually searched the reference lists of relevant trials and reviews, and all issues of two journals. We contacted the authors of all trials or reviews to ask about unpublished trials. Where necessary, we also contacted authors to confirm methods of allocation used and to clarify results presented. We assessed the eligibility of each trial using pre-defined criteria. Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials of methods to increase response to postal or electronic questionnaires. Data collection and analysis: We extracted data on the trial participants, the intervention, the number randomised to intervention and comparison groups and allocation concealment. For each strategy, we estimated pooled odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) in a random-effects model. We assessed evidence for selection bias using Egger's weighted regression method and Begg's rank correlation test and funnel plot. We assessed heterogeneity among trial odds ratios using a Chi 2 test and the degree of inconsistency between trial results was quantified using the I 2 statistic. Main results: Postal We found 481 eligible trials.The trials evaluated 110 different ways of increasing response to postal questionnaires.We found substantial heterogeneity among trial results in half of the strategies. The odds of response were at least doubled using monetary incentives (odds ratio 1.87; 95% CI 1.73 to 2.04; heterogeneity P < 0.00001, I 2 = 84%), recorded delivery (1.76; 95% CI 1.43 to 2.18; P = 0.0001, I 2 = 71%), a teaser on the envelope - e.g. a comment suggesting to participants that they may benefit if they open it (3.08; 95% CI 1.27 to 7.44) and a more interesting questionnaire topic (2.00; 95% CI 1.32 to 3.04; P = 0.06, I 2 = 80%). The odds of response were substantially higher with pre-notification (1.45; 95% CI 1.29 to 1.63; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 89%), follow-up contact (1.35; 95% CI 1.18 to 1.55; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 76%), unconditional incentives (1.61; 1.36 to 1.89; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 88%), shorter questionnaires (1.64; 95%CI 1.43 to 1.87; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 91%), providing a second copy of the questionnaire at follow up (1.46; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.90; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 82%), mentioning an obligation to respond (1.61; 95% CI 1.16 to 2.22; P = 0.98, I 2 = 0%) and university sponsorship (1.32; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.54; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 83%). The odds of response were also increased with non-monetary incentives (1.15; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.22; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 79%), personalised questionnaires (1.14; 95% CI 1.07 to 1.22; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 63%), use of hand-written addresses (1.25; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.45; P = 0.32, I 2 = 14%), use of stamped return envelopes as opposed to franked return envelopes (1.24; 95% CI 1.14 to 1.35; P < 0.00001, I 2 = 69%), an assurance of confidentiality (1.33; 95% CI 1.24 to 1.42) and first class outward mailing (1.11; 95% CI 1.02 to 1.21; P = 0.78, I 2 = 0%). The odds of response were reduced when the questionnaire included questions of a sensitive nature (0.94; 95% CI 0.88 to 1.00; P = 0.51, I 2 = 0%). Electronic: We found 32 eligible trials. The trials evaluated 27 different ways of increasing response to electronic questionnaires. We found substantial heterogeneity among trial results in half of the strategies. The odds of response were increased by more than a half using non-monetary incentives (1.72; 95% CI 1.09 to 2.72; heterogeneity P < 0.00001, I 2 = 95%), shorter e-questionnaires (1.73; 1.40 to 2.13; P = 0.08, I 2 = 68%), including a statement that others had responded (1.52; 95% CI 1.36 to 1.70), and a more interesting topic (1.85; 95% CI 1.52 to 2.26). The odds of response increased by a third using a lottery with immediate notification of results (1.37; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.65), an offer of survey results (1.36; 95% CI 1.15 to 1.61), and using a white background (1.31; 95% CI 1.10 to 1.56). The odds of response were also increased with personalised e-questionnaires (1.24; 95% CI 1.17 to 1.32; P = 0.07, I 2 = 41%), using a simple header (1.23; 95% CI 1.03 to 1.48), using textual representation of response categories (1.19; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.36), and giving a deadline (1.18; 95% CI 1.03 to 1.34). The odds of response tripled when a picture was included in an e-mail (3.05; 95% CI 1.84 to 5.06; P = 0.27, I 2 = 19%). The odds of response were reduced when "Survey" was mentioned in the e-mail subject line (0.81; 95% CI 0.67 to 0.97; P = 0.33, I 2 = 0%), and when the e-mail included a male signature (0.55; 95% CI 0.38 to 0.80; P = 0.96, I 2 = 0%). Authors' conclusions: Health researchers using postal and electronic questionnaires can increase response using the strategies shown to be effective in this systematic review. Copyright © 2009 The Cochrane Collaboration. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.


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