A Fruit-Specific Putative Dihydroflavonol 4-Reductase Gene Is Differentially Expressed in Strawberry during the Ripening Process1

A cDNA clone encoding a putative dihydroflavonol 4-reductase gene has been isolated from a strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa cv Chandler) DNA subtractive library. Northern analysis showed that the corresponding gene is predominantly expressed in fruit, where it is first detected during elongation (green stages) and then declines and sharply increases when the initial fruit ripening events occur, at the time of initiation of anthocyanin accumulation. The transcript can be induced in unripe green fruit by removing the achenes, and this induction can be partially inhibited by treatment of de-achened fruit with naphthylacetic acid, indicating that the expression of this gene is under hormonal control. We propose that the putative dihydroflavonol 4-reductase gene in strawberry plays a main role in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin during color development at the late stages of fruit ripening; during the first stages the expression of this gene could be related to the accumulation of condensed tannins.

Genetic Manipulation of Condensed Tannins in Higher Plants1 : II. Analysis of Birdsfoot Trefoil Plants Harboring Antisense Dihydroflavonol Reductase Constructs

We have produced and analyzed transgenic birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) plants harboring antisense dihydroflavonol reductase (AS-DFR) sequences. In initial experiments the effect of introducing three different antisense Antirrhinum majus L. DFR constructs into a single recipient genotype (S50) was assessed. There were no obvious effects on plant biomass, but levels of condensed tannins showed a statistical reduction in leaf, stem, and root tissues of some of the antisense lines. Transformation events were also found, which resulted in increased levels of condensed tannins. In subsequent experiments a detailed study of AS-DFR phenotypes was carried out in genotype S33 using pMAJ2 (an antisense construct comprising the 5′ half of the A. majus cDNA). In this case, reduced tannin levels were found in leaf and stem tissues and in juvenile shoot tissues. Analysis of soluble flavonoids and isoflavonoids in tannin down-regulated shoot tissues indicated few obvious default products. When two S33 AS-DFR lines were outcrossed, there was an underrepresentation of transgene sequences in progeny plants and no examples of inheritance of an antisense phenotype were observed. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the genetic manipulation of condensed tannin biosynthesis in higher plants.

Transcriptional regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis in nectarine (Prunus persica) by a set of R2R3 MYB transcription factors

Background Flavonoids such as anthocyanins, flavonols and proanthocyanidins, play a central role in fruit colour, flavour and health attributes. In peach and nectarine (Prunus persica) these compounds vary during fruit growth and ripening. Flavonoids are produced by a well studied pathway which is transcriptionally regulated by members of the MYB and bHLH transcription factor families. We have isolated nectarine flavonoid regulating genes and examined their expression patterns, which suggests a critical role in the regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis. Results In nectarine, expression of the genes encoding enzymes of the flavonoid pathway correlated with the concentration of proanthocyanidins, which strongly increases at mid-development. In contrast, the only gene which showed a similar pattern to anthocyanin concentration was UDP-glucose-flavonoid-3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT), which was high at the beginning and end of fruit growth, remaining low during the other developmental stages. Expression of flavonol synthase (FLS1) correlated with flavonol levels, both temporally and in a tissue specific manner. The pattern of UFGT gene expression may be explained by the involvement of different transcription factors, which up-regulate flavonoid biosynthesis (MYB10, MYB123, and bHLH3), or repress (MYB111 and MYB16) the transcription of the biosynthetic genes. The expression of a potential proanthocyanidin-regulating transcription factor, MYBPA1, corresponded with proanthocyanidin levels. Functional assays of these transcription factors were used to test the specificity for flavonoid regulation. Conclusions MYB10 positively regulates the promoters of UFGT and dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) but not leucoanthocyanidin reductase (LAR). In contrast, MYBPA1 trans-activates the promoters of DFR and LAR, but not UFGT. This suggests exclusive roles of anthocyanin regulation by MYB10 and proanthocyanidin regulation by MYBPA1. Further, these transcription factors appeared to be responsive to both developmental and environmental stimuli.

水母雪莲DFR基因的克隆及其正义和反义植物表达载体的构建

水母雪莲（Saussurea medusa Maxim.）为多年生菊科植物，是我国珍稀药用资源。所含的主要生物活性成分是黄酮类物质，具有抗炎、镇痛、免疫抑制及抗氧化等功效。但由于水母雪莲生长环境特殊，生长缓慢，人工引种困难;加上长期掠夺性采挖，造成其野生药用资源短缺，已经不能满足市场的需求。近年来,世界上掀起了植物药开发的热潮,植物药以其天然低毒的特点倍受关注,而黄酮类化合物更是以其广谱的药理作用引人瞩目。 黄酮类化合物的合成代谢途径在植物界进化过程中很保守，黄酮类生物合成途径中的相关酶也已得到确证并进行了系统的研究。二氢黄酮醇-4-还原酶（Dihydroflavonol-4-reductase, DFR）是一个处于花色素或者原花色素合成途径中的关键酶，它与黄酮合成途径中的黄酮醇合成酶（flavonol synthase）竞争底物。本研究以水母雪莲为研究对象，根据近缘物种DFR基因的保守核苷酸序列设计兼并引物，通过PCR技术，从已经建立的水母雪莲红色愈伤组织cDNA文库中筛选到一个编码该酶的cDNA序列，该序列全长1166个碱基对。根据生物信息学分析，此cDNA编码342个氨基酸;Blastp分析结果显示，该氨基酸序列与同科植物翠菊（Callistephus chinensis）的相似性最高，达87%;SWISSMODEL软件预测其蛋白的三级结构与葡萄(Vitis vinifera)的十分相似，活性中心的关键氨基酸残基也完全一致。据此可以断定，我们所得到的cDNA为编码二氢黄酮醇还原酶的基因，并命名为水母雪莲二氢黄酮醇还原酶基因(SmDFR）。为了得到SmDFR的DNA序列，我们又设计特异引物，从水母雪莲的基因组中扩增出了由1871个碱基对组成的DNA序列，该序列包含五个内含子和六个外显子。 为了提高水母雪莲和大苞雪莲中黄酮类物质的含量，我们构建了SmDFR的反义植物表达载体，利用根癌农杆菌介导进行基因转化。通过改变影响农杆菌转化的实验条件包括外植体来源、农杆菌菌株、细菌浓度、外植体预培养时间、侵染时间和乙酰丁香酮的浓度进行转基因试验，目前尚未得到转基因植株。另外，我们构建了SmDFR正义植物表达载体，通过对拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana) DFR基因突变体和矮牵牛(Petunia hybrida)进行基因转化，来验证SmDFR的功能;目前，此实验尚在进行之中。

小麦WHM基因的抗性分析

植物抗病研究一直是科学领域的一个热点，它不仅能从形态结构到分子基础对植物抗病进行机理的阐释，而且能够直接应用于农业生产，提高农业产值。 玉米基因组中Hm基因是编码一种依赖NADPH的HC-toxin 还原酶。Hm基因的序列和玉米，矮牵牛及金鱼草中的二氢黄酮醇-4-还原酶(Dihydroflavonol -4- reductase，DFR)基因的序列具有较高的同源性；对水稻中Hm同源基因YK1的研究表明，过表达YK1后植物抗胁迫能力增强。本实验室从小麦中克隆得到了Hm同源基因WHM，由于在双子叶植物中不含有Hm的同源基因，为了检测WHM在双子叶植物中是否具有生物学功能，我们选取了烟草为模式植物进行了相关研究。 WHM基因cDNA全长1255bp，编码361个氨基酸，WHM基因序列与Hm基因序列具有78%的同源性。为分析此基因在双子叶植物中的功能，我们构建了WHM基因的pBI121植物表达载体，并通过农杆菌介导叶圆片法转化烟草，成功获得了转基因植株。同时我们还构建了WHM基因的原核表达载体并成功诱导了WHM蛋白的表达。对转基因烟草进行抗病与抗盐实验，实验结果表明，对烟草叶片接种烟草黑胫病菌后，转基因烟草的抗病能力显著性的高于对照烟草；烟草叶片接种黑胫病菌后，与对照烟草相比，转基因烟草积累了更多的H2O2，具有更高的POD活性。烟草种子在含不同浓度NaCl的培养基上萌发一定时间后，发现对照烟草的根长变化倍数高于转基因烟草的根长变化倍数，说明转基因烟草对NaCl浓度变化不敏感，尤其是在高浓度时，转基因烟草的生长状态明显好于对照烟草。我们还对IPTG诱导的WHM基因的原核表达载体表达的总蛋白进行了DFR活性的检测，结果表明WHM蛋白在总蛋白中能够竞争性的结合NADPH，但是由于蛋白没有进行纯化，其是否具有DFR的活性还不能确定。

Antioxidant activities of eight Algerian plant extracts and two essential oils

Total phenol, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, flavone/flavonol and flavanones/dihydroflavonol contents of hydro-alcoholic extracts, obtained by sonication, from the aerial parts of Artemisia campestris L., Anthemis arvensis L., Haloxylon scoparium Pomel, Juniperus phoenicea L., Arbutus unedo L., Cytisus monspessulanus L., Thymus algeriensis Boiss et Reut, Zizyphus lotus L (Desf.) collected in Djebel Amour (Sahara Atlas, Algeria) were quantified by spectrophotometric methods. The chemical composition of the essential oils obtained by hydrodistillation from Artemisia campestris L. and Juniperus phoenicea I aerial parts were also evaluated by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The antioxidant activity of the extracts and essential oils was assessed measuring the capacity for preventing lipid peroxidation using two lipidic substrates (egg yolk and liposomes), the capacity for scavenging DPPH, ABTS, superoxide anion radicals, hydroxyl radicals and peroxyl radicals. Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed by measuring the capacity for inhibiting lipoxygenase. Reducing power and chelating capacity were also assayed. The results showed different amounts of total phenols depending on the method used: A. campestris extract had the highest levels of total phenols when the measurement was made at lambda = 280 nm, whereas H. scoparium and A. unedo extracts showed the highest levels of total phenols with Folin-Ciocalteau. C. monspessulanus had the highest levels of flavones/flavonols and flavanones/dihydroflavonols. The essential oils of A. campestris and J. phoenicea were mainly constituted by alpha-pinene, beta-pinene and sabinene; and a-pinene, respectively. The methods used for assaying the capacity for preventing lipid peroxidation revealed to be inadequate for extracts due to the great interferences detected. The essential oils were more active than the generality of extracts for scavenging peroxyl radicals and for inhibiting lipoxygenase, whereas A. unedo extract was the most active for scavenging ABTS, DPPH, superoxide anion radicals and it also had the best reducing capacity. In a general way, the great majority of the antioxidant activities correlated well with the phenol content although such correlation was not so clear with the flavonoid content. (c) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Inhibition of peroxidase activity and scavenging of reactive oxygen species by astilbin isolated from Dimorphandra mollis (Fabaceae, Caesalpinioideae)

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Toxicity of Dimorphandra mollis to Workers of Apis mellifera

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Xeractinol - A new flavanonol C-glucoside from Paepalanthus argenteus var. argenteus (Bongard) Hensold (Eriocaulaceae)

New compound isolated from methanolic extract from the leaves of Paepalanthus argenteus var. argenteus (Bongard) Hensold was characterized as xeractinol, a new dihydroflavonol C-glucoside. The structure was elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis (1D and 2D NMR, MS, HREIMS, IR and UV). Ab initio electronic structure calculations support our proposal to the molecular structure. The dihydroflavonol herein isolated may serve as taxonomic marker of Paepalanthus subgenus Xeractis, because this flavonoid have not been reported in any other taxon of Eriocaulaceae.

COUMARINS AND A FLAVONOID FROM PTEROCAULON ALOPECUROIDES

From a CH2Cl2 extract of the aerial parts of Pterocaulon alopecuroides, two oxyprenyl coumarins, 7-(2,3-dihydroxy-3-methylbutyloxy)-6-methoxy coumarin and 7-(2,3-dihydroxy-3-methylbutyloxy)-5-hydroxy-6-methoxy coumarin and one flavononol, 3,5,3',4'-tetrahydroxy-7-(2,3-en-3-methylbutyloxy)-2,3-dihydroflavonol, were isolated.

Elaboração de métodos analíticos de desreplicação para o estudo metabolômico em espedies de Qualea (Vochysiaceae) : detecção e elucidação in situ de micromoléculas com potencial antioxidante

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Dihydroflavonols from the leaves of Derris urucu (Leguminosae): structural elucidation and DPPH radical-scavenging activity

Derris urucu é uma planta da Amazônia com propriedades inseticida e ictiotóxica. Estudos com esta espécie reportam a presença de flavonóides, principalmente rotenóides, bem como de estilbenos. A partir do extrato etanólico das folhas de Derris urucu (Leguminosae), três novos diidroflavonóides, denominados urucuol A (1), B (2) e C (3) e o diidroflavonol isotirumalina (4), foram isolados e identificados. As estruturas destes compostos foram elucidadas por uma extensiva análise espectroscópica de RMN uni e bidimensional, UV, IV e dados de EM, além de comparação com dados da literatura. Os compostos isolados (1-4) foram avaliados quanto ao seu potencial sequestrador do radical DPPH• e apresentaram baixo poder antioxidante quando comparados ao antioxidante comercial trans-resveratrol.

Flavonoids from the leaves of Deguelia utilis (Leguminosae): structural elucidation and neuroprotective properties

Das folhas de Deguelia utilis foram isolados cinco flavonoides: 5,3'-di-hidróxi-4'-metóxi2'',2''-dimetilcromeno-(5'',6'':6,7)-di-hidroflavonol (1), 5,3'-di-hidróxi-7,4'-dimetóxi-6,8dimetilalil-di-hidroflavonol (2), 5,3'-di-hidróxi-4'-metóxi-8-prenil-2'',2''-dimetilcromeno(5'',6'':6,7)-flavanona (3), 5,3'-di-hidróxi-7,4'-dimetóxi-6,8-dimetilalil-flavanona (4), 3,5,3'-tri-hidróxi-7,4'-dimetóxi-6,8-dimetilalil-flavanol (5), juntamente com os estilbenos: 4-metoxilonchocarpeno (6) e lonchocarpeno (7). Suas estruturas químicas foram elucidadas com base nos seus dados de NMR (ressonância magnética nuclear) e HRESITOF-MS (espectrometria de massas de alta resolução por tempo de vôo, com ionização por eletrospray). Além disso, a fim de investigar o potencial efeito citoprotetor desses flavonoides, foi utilizada uma fração eluída com hexano:AcOEt contendo os sete flavonoides, em um modelo in vitro de neurodegeneração, utilizando culturas primárias do hipocampo de ratos neonatal (PND2-P3) expostos à rotenona, um inibidor mitocondrial do complexo I. Houve uma redução significativa da viabilidade celular (19,4 ± 1,6%), quando as culturas foram expostas à rotenona 30 nmol L^-1 por 72 h. A exposição concomitante das culturas a FR3 (5 µg mL^-1) e rotenona 30 nmol L^-1 resultou em valores de viabilidade celular semelhante ao grupo controle (99,6 ± 4,8%), sugerindo um efeito citoprotetor para essa fração.

Interactions among enzymes of the Arabidopsis flavonoid biosynthetic pathway

Flavonoids are secondary metabolites derived from phenylalanine and acetate metabolism that perform a variety of essential functions in higher plants. Studies over the past 30 years have supported a model in which flavonoid metabolism is catalyzed by an enzyme complex localized to the endoplasmic reticulum [Hrazdina, G. & Wagner, G. J. (1985) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 237, 88–100]. To test this model further we assayed for direct interactions between several key flavonoid biosynthetic enzymes in developing Arabidopsis seedlings. Two-hybrid assays indicated that chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase (CHI), and dihydroflavonol 4-reductase interact in an orientation-dependent manner. Affinity chromatography and immunoprecipitation assays further demonstrated interactions between chalcone synthase, CHI, and flavonol 3-hydroxylase in lysates from Arabidopsis seedlings. These results support the hypothesis that the flavonoid enzymes assemble as a macromolecular complex with contacts between multiple proteins. Evidence was also found for posttranslational modification of CHI. The importance of understanding the subcellular organization of elaborate enzyme systems is discussed in the context of metabolic engineering.

Reduction of Light-Induced Anthocyanin Accumulation in Inoculated Sorghum Mesocotyls1 : Implications for a Compensatory Role in the Defense Response

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) accumulates the anthocyanin cyanidin 3-dimalonyl glucoside in etiolated mesocotyls in response to light. Inoculation with the nonpathogenic fungus Cochliobolus heterostrophus drastically reduced the light-induced accumulation of anthocyanin by repressing the transcription of the anthocyanin biosynthesis genes encoding flavanone 3-hydroxylase, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, and anthocyanidin synthase. In contrast to these repression effects, fungal inoculation resulted in the synthesis of the four known 3-deoxyanthocyanidin phytoalexins and a corresponding activation of genes encoding the key branch-point enzymes in the phenylpropanoid pathway, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and chalcone synthase. In addition, a gene encoding the pathogenesis-related protein PR-10 was strongly induced in response to inoculation. The accumulation of phytoalexins leveled off by 48 h after inoculation and was accompanied by a more rapid increase in the rate of anthocyanin accumulation. The results suggest that the plant represses less essential metabolic activities such as anthocyanin synthesis as a means of compensating for the immediate biochemical and physiological needs for the defense response.