Pollination systems in Pogonieae (Orchidaceae: Vanilloideae): A hypothesis of evolution among reward and rewardless flowers

The tribe Pogonieae of Vanilloideae (Orchidaceae) consists of six genera, including Pogoniopsis, a mycoheterotrophic taxon with morphological characteristics distinct from the remaining of the tribe. A hypothesis about the phylogeny of the tribe was inferred, involving all currently recognized genera, based on isolated and combined sequence data of 5.8S, 18S and 26S (nrDNA) regions using parsimony and Bayesian analyses. Phylogenetic analyses show that inclusion of Pogoniopsis turns the tribe Pogonieae paraphyletic. All analyses reveal that Pogoniopsis is closely related to members of Epidendroideae. The pantropical Vanilla is monophyletic if Dictyophyllaria is assumed as synonym of Vanilla. Members of Pogonieae are pollinated by several groups of solitary and social bees, two pollination systems being recognized: reward-producing and deceptive. The molecular phylogeny suggests that ancestrals related to Pogonieae gave rise to two evolutionary lines: a tropical one with reward production of flowers, and a predominantly temperate regions invading line with deceptive flowers. Reward-producing flowers characterize the South and Central American clade (=Cleistes), while deceptive pollination is prominent in the clade that includes North American-Asiatic taxa plus the Amazonian genus Duckeella. (C) 2012 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

同域分布两种兰科植物的传粉生物学及其防止同株异花授粉机制

兰科植物是被子植物中物种最丰富和最进化的类群之一，具有精巧、多样化的花部结构以及独特的吸引传粉者方式。开展兰科植物传粉生物学的研究对理解自然选择机制和异花授粉优势学说具有重要的理论意义。广西雅长兰科植物自然保护区是我国第一个以兰科植物命名的保护区，本文通过对保护区内同域分布的流苏贝母兰（Coelogyne fimbriata）和兔耳兰(Cymbidium lancifolium )传粉过程观察和繁殖成功等方面的研究，探讨兰科植物传粉机制和防止同株异花授粉的机制。同时结合传粉生物学研究的结果，对兰科植物多样性保护提出相关建议。主要研究结果如下： 1．流苏贝母兰的传粉生物学 在保护区2 个居群内对流苏贝母兰花期物候、传粉者种类和行为进行了连续3 年（2005-2007）的观察，对花和传粉者形态学指标进行了测量，对两个居群内所选取实验样地的花粉移走率、花粉接收率和结实率进行了详细的统计，通过动物行为学实验检测了花香对传粉者吸引方面的影响。并通过人工繁育系统实验检测流苏贝母兰的繁殖特征。结果显示，流苏贝母兰为具有特殊气味且无花蜜的兰科植物，由一种黄胡蜂属（Vespula）昆虫的雌性个体专性传粉，此为第二例由胡蜂专性传粉的具有食源性欺骗机制的兰科植物，且在传粉者行为和吸引机制与第一例存在很大差异。行为学实验显示花香对传粉者具有吸引作用。流苏贝母兰的花期与实验地黄胡蜂的繁殖季节和种群扩张期相吻合，在此期间，为了满足自身和幼虫的需求，黄胡蜂对碳水化合物需求大大增加。推测流苏贝母兰利用了黄胡蜂在繁殖和种群扩张期间需要大量摄取碳水化合物类物质，通过模拟碳水化合物来源（如果实或有花蜜、汁液分泌的植物）的气味，吸引传粉者。居群内花粉移走率、花粉接收率和结实率分别为0.069-0.918，0.025-0.695和0.014-0.069。结实率较低的原因可能与流苏贝母兰的自交不亲和特性和传粉者连续访问造成的同克隆授粉有关。其自交不亲和特性能有效地阻止自交，促进异交，同时蕊喙在接收花粉24 h 内与柱头愈合也能够减少花粉浪费，提高雄性适合度。 2．兔耳兰的传粉生物学 在保护区1 个居群内对兔耳兰进行了连续2 年（2005-2006）的观察和实验。观察发现兔耳兰唯一的传粉者为膜翅目蜜蜂科的中华蜜蜂(Apis cerana cerana)。中华蜜蜂在花内的停留时间为8-71 s。根据观察我们推测兔耳兰可能是通过其唇瓣上无规则的紫栗色小斑点(假蜜导)来吸引中华蜜蜂为其传粉, 属于食源性欺骗方式。在传粉过程中兔耳兰的药帽与花粉团和粘盘一起粘在中华蜜蜂胸背部。药帽的存在能够阻止下一朵被拜访的花实现雌性功能。兔耳兰药帽高度加上传粉昆虫胸高大于传粉通道入口的高度, 支持兔耳兰可能通过药帽来减少同株异花授粉现象的推测。蕊喙会在花粉接受72 h 内逐渐下弯并与柱头愈合，将接受的花粉包裹，且有些花的花萼片和侧面的两个花瓣会环抱住唇瓣侧裂片及蕊柱形成的入口，即传粉通道，避免继续接收花粉，增加花粉输出，提高雄性适合度。2005 和2006 年该兔耳兰居群的自然繁殖成功率分别为0.211 和0.213。繁育系统实验证明兔耳兰是高度自交亲和物种，不存在无融合生殖和自动自花授粉的现象, 其结实依赖传粉者。TTC 法检测结果显示兔耳兰种子活力达85.78%因此推断种子活力不是制约兔耳兰种子萌发的主要原因。而传粉者的密度和访问频率可能是影响兔耳兰结实的重要因素, 并最终影响兔耳兰种群的维持和扩张。 3．兰科植物促进繁殖成功的机制 植物通过各种方式吸引传粉者的最终目的是实现繁殖成功，是植物生活史的重要环节。兰科植物具有雌雄同体的合蕊柱的特殊结构，为了避免花粉-柱头间的干扰，其进化出一系列特殊的花部结构和适应机制，如欺骗性吸引机制、花粉块柄弯曲、花粉干缩等等。流苏贝母兰作为大量开花的克隆植物，其自交不亲和特性是促进异交的重要机制，另外蕊喙在花粉接收24 h 内与柱头发生愈合也是减少同株异花授粉机率的重要花部适应特征。兔耳兰为聚丛状生长的兰科植物，总状花序具多朵花，在传粉过程中通过药帽的阻挡和机械隔离，使携带于昆虫背部的花粉不能进入花内与柱头发生接触，避免同株异花授粉的发生。另外兔耳兰也存在花部适应的机制，蕊喙在花粉接收72 h 内逐渐下弯与柱头愈合，同时有些花的花萼片和侧面的两个花瓣环抱传粉通道入口，避免继续接收花粉，提高雄性适合度。 4. 兰科植物传粉系统和多样性保护 传粉生物学的研究为兰科植物的保护生物学提供了坚固的理论基础和重要的科学依据。绝大部分的兰科植物繁殖成功受到传粉者数量的限制。由于其精巧的花部结构，约67%已知传粉系统的兰科植物仅由唯一的传粉者专性传粉。另外，在某些区域内，还存在着较高程度的传粉者共享。传粉者数量的减少已经威胁到兰科植物的繁殖生存。因此，对兰科植物的保护应不仅仅关注于植物的保护，同时还应致力于传粉系统的保护。

Convergent evolution of floral signals underlies the success of Neotropical orchids

The great majority of plant species in the tropics require animals to achieve pollination, but the exact role of floral signals in attraction of animal pollinators is often debated. Many plants provide a floral reward to attract a guild of pollinators, and it has been proposed that floral signals of non-rewarding species may converge on those of rewarding species to exploit the relationship of the latter with their pollinators. In the orchid family (Orchidaceae), pollination is almost universally animal-mediated, but a third of species provide no floral reward, which suggests that deceptive pollination mechanisms are prevalent. Here, we examine floral colour and shape convergence in Neotropical plant communities, focusing on certain food-deceptive Oncidiinae orchids (e.g. Trichocentrum ascendens and Oncidium nebulosum) and rewarding species of Malpighiaceae. We show that the species from these two distantly related families are often more similar in floral colour and shape than expected by chance and propose that a system of multifarious floral mimicry—a form of Batesian mimicry that involves multiple models and is more complex than a simple one model–one mimic system—operates in these orchids. The same mimetic pollination system has evolved at least 14 times within the species-rich Oncidiinae throughout the Neotropics. These results help explain the extraordinary diversification of Neotropical orchids and highlight the complexity of plant–animal interactions.

Micromorphology of the labellum and structure of the osmophore in a group of closely related species of the sexually deceptive Orchid genus Ophrys (orchidaceae)

Tese de doutoramento, Biologia (Biologia Celular), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2016

Real estate agents, brochure and misleading or deceptive conduct

The decision of the High Court in Butcher v Lachlan Elder Realty Pty Ltd [2004] HCA 60 involves issues that affect every person who is induced to buy real estate in Australia by statements in sales brochures distributed by real estate agents. One of these issues is the extent to which estate agents unwittingly engage in misleading or deceptive conduct under s 52 of the Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth) (‘the Act’) when they distribute sales brochures that contain untrue or misleading statements prepared by others. A further issue is the extent to which agents can escape liability by relying on disclaimers about the authenticity of false statements contained in brochures prepared by them.

Misleading and deceptive conduct at an auction

An unusual factual situation recently arose for consideration by Lindsay J of the Federal Circuit Court. In Carter v Delgrove Holdings Pty Ltd [2013] FCCA 783, an application was brought by the owners of a residential property in Western Australia, the Carters, for damages for misleading or deceptive conduct under s 18 of the Australian Consumer Law (“ACL”) and for damages for breach of contract arising from an auction of their house. Delgrove Holdings Pty Ltd was a trustee of a family trust with Mr Ilahi being a director and shareholder of the company as well as a beneficiary under the family trust. It was established that Delgrove Holdings Pty Ltd engaged in the business of property acquisition for the purposes of generating rental income...

The use of headings and marginal notes in interpreting Queensland legislation : appearances can be deceptive

This article considers the rules relating to the use of marginal notes and headings in interpreting Queensland legislation, both in its original form and in reprinted legislation. It also examines the application of the principles of construction as to the use of section headings in the interpretation of provisions of the Criminal Code 1899 (Qld). Finally, it suggests that amendments should be made to the Acts Interpretation Act 1954 (Qld) in order to clarify the position as to the status of marginal notes and headings in statutory interpretation.

Competition for pollination by the lesser short-tailed bat and its influence on the flowering phenology of some New Zealand endemics

The lesser short-tailed bat, Mystacina tuberculata, is the only native mammalian pollinator in New Zealand and the only fully temperate bat pollinator in the world. Although this unique status as a pollinator is well recognized, its reduced abundance and cryptic behaviour means little research has been undertaken to assess the contribution of the lesser short-tailed bat (hereafter ‘short-tailed bat’) to pollination in New Zealand. Accordingly, pollination by short-tailed bats has been assumed to be comparatively inconsequential, and the potential impacts of the bat's widespread extirpation have been overlooked. The recent discovery that the short-tailed bat is a major pollinator for at least some of the plants it visits emphasizes the importance of exploring this species' role as a pollinator. Here, our aim was to provide an assessment of the competition for short-tailed bat pollination through study of the temporal variation of flowering. Bats were sampled for pollen, and phenology surveys were conducted simultaneously. We found that the amount and type of pollen carried by the bats varied temporally, with one pollen type dominating samples at any given time. The two plants most consistently observed in the pollen samples flowered sequentially with little temporal overlap, suggesting that their flowering phenology may be adapted to minimize competition for the pollination services of the short-tailed bat.

Demographics, pollination syndrome and conservation status of Macrozamia platyrhachis (Zamiaceae), a geographically restricted Queensland cycad

To assess the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) status of Macrozamia platyrhachis F.M.Bailey, we surveyed this central Queensland cycad for its population abundance and health and its pollinator type and pollination syndrome (thermogenesis and volatile emissions). Plants are locally abundant within the 11 discrete populations surveyed, with an estimated population of 611 315 adult plants. Plants are highly restricted to a small area of occupancy, seed dispersal is nearly non-existent and extreme fires appear to have destroyed almost all seeds and seedlings and decimated the pollinators. Of known Macrozamia pollinators, only the thrips, Cycadothrips chadwicki Mound, were found on cones, and these were found in very low numbers. The pollination syndrome for this cycad appears to be unique, based on two cone traits. For one, thermogenesis peaks in early evening, a contrast with daytime peaks of other Cycadothrips-pollinated Macrozamia, but matches that of the Tranes weevil-pollinated Macrozamia machinii. In addition, cone volatiles include both previously unreported compounds as well as those reported exclusively on either Cycadothrips- or Tranes-pollinated species. Based on its small, fragmented area of occupancy, projected population declines and the unique pollination syndrome, we recommend that M. platyrhachis retain its current status as 'Endangered'. Habitat management plans should stipulate that controlled burns be avoided during cycad coning season and that wildfires be controlled to minimise damage to seedlings and pollinators.

Reproductive Biology of Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata and Effective Pollination across its Native Range.

The spotted gum species complex represents a group of four eucalypt hardwood taxa that have a native range that spans the east coast of Australia, with a morphological cline from Victoria to northern Queensland. Of this group, Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata (CCV) is widespread in south-eastern Queensland and northern New South Wales. It is currently the most commonly harvested native hardwood in Queensland. However, little basic knowledge of the reproductive biology of the species is available to inform genetic improvement and resource management programmes. Here we take an integrative approach, using both field and molecular data, to identify ecological factors important to mating patterns in native populations of CCV. Field observation of pollinator visitation and flowering phenology of 20 trees showed that foraging behaviour of pollinator guilds varies depending on flowering phenology and canopy structure. A positive effect of tree mean flowering effort was found on insect visitation, while bat visitation was predicted by tree height and by the number of trees simultaneously bearing flowers. Moreover, introduced honeybees were observed frequently, performing 73% of detected flower visits. Conversely, nectar-feeding birds and mammals were observed sporadically with lorikeets and honeyeaters each contributing to 11% of visits. Fruit bats, represented solely by the grey-headed flying fox, performed less than 2% of visits. Genotyping at six microsatellite markers in 301 seeds from 17 families sampled from four of Queensland's native forests showed that CCV displays a mixed-mating system that is mostly outcrossing (tm = 0.899 ± 0.021). Preferential effective pollination from near-neighbours was detected by means of maximum-likelihood paternity analysis with up to 16% of reproduction events resulting from selfing. Forty to 48% of fertilising pollen was also carried from longer distance (>60 m). Marked differences in foraging behaviour and visitation frequency between observed pollinator guilds suggests that the observed dichotomy of effective pollen movement in spotted gums may be due to frequent visit from introduced honeybees favouring geitonogamy and sporadic visits from honeyeaters and fruit bats resulting in potential long-distance pollinations.

Controlled pollination methods for creating Corymbia hybrids.

Inter-specific Corymbia hybrids are of increasing interest to plantation forestry, yet there is little knowledge of the most suitable controlled pollination methods for this genus. Inter-specific crosses were made between C. torelliana [CT(maternal parent)] and C. citriodora subsp. variegata (CCV), C. henryi (CH) and C. citriodora subsp. citriodora (CCC) using conventional pollination, one-stop pollination (OSP) and artificially-induced protogyny on yellow buds (AIP Y) pollination methods. Additional treatments included AIP on green buds (AIP G) and the use of exclusion bags for the OSP and AIP methods. Inter-specific hybrids (CT x CCV, CT x CH and CT x CCC) were successfully created using all three pollination methods. The AIP Y treatment provided the highest seed yields and achieved time savings of >41% over the conventional and OSP methods, resulting in up to five-fold increases in operator productivity. However, the AIP Y treatment also had the highest C. torelliana contamination levels (9.3–13.2%). The use of exclusion bags with the AIP method had minimal effect on contamination rates, indicating a high proportion of selfpollen contamination. Contamination rates varied between maternal parents, suggesting variation in selfcompatibility for C. torelliana individuals. AIP using semi-ripe green buds was not effective at reducing selfing and had low operator productivity. The AIP method is suitable for use in a large-scale hybrid breeding program for C. torelliana. When self-pollination effects are managed, it could greatly reduce the costs associated with the production of seed of elite family crosses for commercial forestry deployment.

Pollination methods, stigma receptivity and pollen tube growth in Eucalyptus argophloia

Eucalyptus argophloia Blakely (Western white gum) has shown potential as a commercial forestry timber species in marginal environments of north-eastern Australia. We measured early pollination success in Eucalyptus argophloia to compare pollination methods, determine the timing of stigma receptivity and compare fresh and stored pollen. Early pollination success was measured by counting pollen tubes in the style of E. argophloia 12 days after pollination. We compared the early pollination success of 1) Artificially Induced Protogyny (AIP), one-stop and three-stop methods of pollination; 2) flowers pollinated at 2 day intervals between 2 days before and 6 days after anthesis and 3) fresh pollen and pollen that had been stored for 9 months. Our results show significantly more pollen tubes from unpollinated AIP and AIP treatments than either the one-stop pollination or three-stop pollination treatments. This indicates that self-pollination occurs in the unpollinated AIP treatment. There was very little pollen tube growth in the one-stop method indicating that the three-stop method is the most suitable for this species. Stigma receptivity in E. argophloia commenced six days after anthesis and no pollen tube growth was observed prior to this. Fresh pollen resulted in pollen tube growth in the style whereas the stored pollen resulted in a total absence of pollen tube growth. We recommend that breeding programs incorporating E. argophloia as a female parent use the three-stop pollination method, and controlled pollination be carried out at least six days after anthesis using fresh pollen.

Comparison of three pollination methods for Eucalyptus argophloia, a small-flowered eucalypt

Context Most studies assess pollination success at capsule maturity, and studies of pre-zygotic processes are often lacking. Aims This study investigates the suitability of controlled pollination for a potential forestry plantation species, Eucalyptus argophloia, by examining pre- and post-zygotic pollination success. Methods Pollen tube development, capsule set and seed set are compared following three-stop pollination, artificially induced protogyny (AIP), AIP unpollinated and open pollination. The fecundity of stored pollen was compared with that of fresh pollen. Results Three-stop pollination, AIP and open pollination had similar numbers of pollen tubes, but AIP unpollinated had none. Open pollination produced significantly more capsules and total number of seeds than the other treatments. There were significantly more seeds per retained capsule for the open pollination and three-stop pollination treatments than for the AIP and AIP unpollinated pollination treatments. There were no significant differences relative to the age of pollen. Conclusions Pre-zygotic success in terms of pollen tubes was similar for open-pollinated, three stop and AIP, but was not reflected in post-zygotic success when the open pollination and three-stop method produced significantly more seeds per retained capsule than the AIP treatments and open pollination yielded more seeds. Capsule set and total seed set for open pollination, and fewer capsules in controlled pollinations, may reflect physical damage to buds because of the small E. argophloia flowers. Suitable alternative breeding strategies other than controlled pollinations are discussed for this species.