Analysis of temporal structure in spike trains of visual cortical area MT

The temporal structure of neuronal spike trains in the visual cortex can provide detailed information about the stimulus and about the neuronal implementation of visual processing. Spike trains recorded from the macaque motion area MT in previous studies (Newsome et al., 1989a; Britten et al., 1992; Zohary et al., 1994) are analyzed here in the context of the dynamic random dot stimulus which was used to evoke them. If the stimulus is incoherent, the spike trains can be highly modulated and precisely locked in time to the stimulus. In contrast, the coherent motion stimulus creates little or no temporal modulation and allows us to study patterns in the spike train that may be intrinsic to the cortical circuitry in area MT. Long gaps in the spike train evoked by the preferred direction motion stimulus are found, and they appear to be symmetrical to bursts in the response to the anti-preferred direction of motion. A novel cross-correlation technique is used to establish that the gaps are correlated between pairs of neurons. Temporal modulation is also found in psychophysical experiments using a modified stimulus. A model is made that can account for the temporal modulation in terms of the computational theory of biological image motion processing. A frequency domain analysis of the stimulus reveals that it contains a repeated power spectrum that may account for psychophysical and electrophysiological observations.

Some neurons tend to fire bursts of action potentials while others avoid burst firing. Using numerical and analytical models of spike trains as Poisson processes with the addition of refractory periods and bursting, we are able to account for peaks in the power spectrum near 40 Hz without assuming the existence of an underlying oscillatory signal. A preliminary examination of the local field potential reveals that stimulus-locked oscillation appears briefly at the beginning of the trial.

Laminar Cortical Dynamics of Visual Form and Motion Interactions During Coherent Object Motion Perception

How do visual form and motion processes cooperate to compute object motion when each process separately is insufficient? A 3D FORMOTION model specifies how 3D boundary representations, which separate figures from backgrounds within cortical area V2, capture motion signals at the appropriate depths in MT; how motion signals in MT disambiguate boundaries in V2 via MT-to-Vl-to-V2 feedback; how sparse feature tracking signals are amplified; and how a spatially anisotropic motion grouping process propagates across perceptual space via MT-MST feedback to integrate feature-tracking and ambiguous motion signals to determine a global object motion percept. Simulated data include: the degree of motion coherence of rotating shapes observed through apertures, the coherent vs. element motion percepts separated in depth during the chopsticks illusion, and the rigid vs. non-rigid appearance of rotating ellipses.

Laminar Cortical Dynamics of Visual Form and Motion Interactions During Coherent Object Motion Perception

How do visual form and motion processes cooperate to compute object motion when each process separately is insufficient? Consider, for example, a deer moving behind a bush. Here the partially occluded fragments of motion signals available to an observer must be coherently grouped into the motion of a single object. A 3D FORMOTION model comprises five important functional interactions involving the brain’s form and motion systems that address such situations. Because the model’s stages are analogous to areas of the primate visual system, we refer to the stages by corresponding anatomical names. In one of these functional interactions, 3D boundary representations, in which figures are separated from their backgrounds, are formed in cortical area V2. These depth-selective V2 boundaries select motion signals at the appropriate depths in MT via V2-to-MT signals. In another, motion signals in MT disambiguate locally incomplete or ambiguous boundary signals in V2 via MT-to-V1-to-V2 feedback. The third functional property concerns resolution of the aperture problem along straight moving contours by propagating the influence of unambiguous motion signals generated at contour terminators or corners. Here, sparse “feature tracking signals” from, e.g., line ends, are amplified to overwhelm numerically superior ambiguous motion signals along line segment interiors. In the fourth, a spatially anisotropic motion grouping process takes place across perceptual space via MT-MST feedback to integrate veridical feature-tracking and ambiguous motion signals to determine a global object motion percept. The fifth property uses the MT-MST feedback loop to convey an attentional priming signal from higher brain areas back to V1 and V2. The model's use of mechanisms such as divisive normalization, endstopping, cross-orientation inhibition, and longrange cooperation is described. Simulated data include: the degree of motion coherence of rotating shapes observed through apertures, the coherent vs. element motion percepts separated in depth during the chopsticks illusion, and the rigid vs. non-rigid appearance of rotating ellipses.

Face segregation and recognition by cortical multi-scale line and edge coding

Models of visual perception are based on image representations in cortical area V1 and higher areas which contain many cell layers for feature extraction. Basic simple, complex and end-stopped cells provide input for line, edge and keypoint detection. In this paper we present an improved method for multi-scale line/edge detection based on simple and complex cells. We illustrate the line/edge representation for object reconstruction, and we present models for multi-scale face (object) segregation and recognition that can be embedded into feedforward dorsal and ventral data streams (the “what” and “where” subsystems) with feedback streams from higher areas for obtaining translation, rotation and scale invariance.

Face recognition by cortical multi-scale line and edge representations

Empirical studies concerning face recognition suggest that faces may be stored in memory by a few canonical representations. Models of visual perception are based on image representations in cortical area V1 and beyond, which contain many cell layers for feature extraction. Simple, complex and end-stopped cells provide input for line, edge and keypoint detection. Detected events provide a rich, multi-scale object representation, and this representation can be stored in memory in order to identify objects. In this paper, the above context is applied to face recognition. The multi-scale line/edge representation is explored in conjunction with keypoint-based saliency maps for Focus-of-Attention. Recognition rates of up to 96% were achieved by combining frontal and 3/4 views, and recognition was quite robust against partial occlusions.

Face normalization using multi-scale cortical keypoints

Empirical studies concerning face recognition suggest that faces may be stored in memory by a few canonical representations. Models of visual perception are based on image representations in cortical area V1 and beyond, which contain many cell layers for feature extractions. Simple, complex and end-stopped cells tuned to different spatial frequencies (scales) and/or orientations provide input for line, edge and keypoint detection. This yields a rich, multi-scale object representation that can be stored in memory in order to identify objects. The multi-scale, keypoint-based saliency maps for Focus-of-Attention can be explored to obtain face detection and normalization, after which face recognition can be achieved using the line/edge representation. In this paper, we focus only on face normalization, showing that multi-scale keypoints can be used to construct canonical representations of faces in memory.

Cortical object segregation and categorization by multi-scale line and edge coding

In this paper we present an improved scheme for line and edge detection in cortical area V1, based on responses of simple and complex cells, truly multi-scale with no free parameters. We illustrate the multi-scale representation for visual reconstruction, and show how object segregation can be achieved with coarse-to-finescale groupings. A two-level object categorization scenario is tested in which pre-categorization is based on coarse scales only, and final categorization on coarse plus fine scales. Processing schemes are discussed in the framework of a complete cortical architecture.

Recognition of facial expressions by cortical multi-scale line and edge coding

Empirical studies concerning face recognition suggest that faces may be stored in memory by a few canonical representations. Models of visual perception are based on image representations in cortical area V1 and beyond, which contain many cell layers for feature extraction. Simple, complex and end-stopped cells provide input for line, edge and keypoint detection. Detected events provide a rich, multi-scale object representation, and this representation can be stored in memory in order to identify objects. In this paper, the above context is applied to face recognition. The multi-scale line/edge representation is explored in conjunction with keypoint-based saliency maps for Focus-of-Attention. Recognition rates of up to 96% were achieved by combining frontal and 3/4 views, and recognition was quite robust against partial occlusions.

Cortical 3D Face Recognition Framework

Empirical studies concerning face recognition suggest that faces may be stored in memory by a few canonical representations. In cortical area V1 exist double-opponent colour blobs, also simple, complex and end-stopped cells which provide input for a multiscale line/edge representation, keypoints for dynamic routing and saliency maps for Focus-of-Attention. All these combined allow us to segregate faces. Events of different facial views are stored in memory and combined in order to identify the view and recognise the face including facial expression. In this paper we show that with five 2D views and their cortical representations it is possible to determine the left-right and frontal-lateral-profile views and to achieve view-invariant recognition of 3D faces.

Cortical 3D face and object recognition using 2D projections

Empirical studies concerning face recognition suggest that faces may be stored in memory by a few canonical representations. In cortical area V1 exist double-opponent colour blobs, also simple, complex and end-stopped cells which provide input for a multiscale line/edge representation, keypoints for dynamic feature routine, and saliency maps for Focus-of-Attention.

Cortical origin of functional recovery in the somatosensory cortex of the adult mouse after thalamic lesion

Résumé L'accident vasculaire cérébral sensoriel pur est un des syndromes lacunaires, dû à l'occlusion de petits vaisseaux cérébraux, souvent dans le cadre d'une lésion intéressant le noyau ventro-caudal du thalamus. Il produit un hémisyndrome sensitif pur, et parfois un syndrome douloureux se développe à distance de l'événement aigu. Afin d'étudier la récupération fonctionnelle dans le cortex somatosensoriel (SI) après une telle lésion dans le thalamus, un modèle de lésion excitotoxique a été développé dans le système somatosensoriel de la souris adulte, caractérisé par la présence de formations cytoarchitectoniques dans SI appelées "tonneaux". Chacun de ces tonneaux correspond à la représentation corticale d'une vibrisse du museau. L'activité métabolique a été mesurée dans SI à différents intervalles après la lésion, à l'aide de déoxyglucose marqué radioactivement. Dans les deux premiers jours suivant celle-ci, l'activité métabolique diminue de manière importante dans toutes les couches corticales, avec une atteinte plus marquée dans la couche IV, principale projection des axones thalamo-corticaux. Une récupération de l'activité métabolique se produit ensuite, d'autant plus marquée que le délai après la lésion est grand. Cette récupération s'observe dans toutes les couches coticales, les couches I et Vb récupérant plus rapidement que les couches II, III, IV, Va et VI. Cinq semaines après la lésion, l'absence des vibrisses correspondant à la partie déafférentée de SI diminue l'activité métabolique corticale de 32% et démontre l'activation par la périphérie de cette partie de l'écorce, malgré la perte des axones thalamo-corticaux provenant du noyau ventro-caudal. Des expériences de traçage rétrograde ont montré une augmentation des projections intracorticales sur la partie déafférentée de l'écorce, en particulier de longue distance, ainsi que des projections interhémisphériques, mais n'ont pas permis de mettre en évidence de nouvelle projection thalamique, indiquant une origine corticale à la récupération fonctionnelle observée. Abstract To study the degree and time course of the functional recovery in the somatosensory cortex (SI) after an excitotoxic lesion in the adult mouse thalamus, metabolic activity was determined in SI at various times points post lesion. Immediately after the lesion, metabolic activity in the thalamically deafferented part of SI was at its lowest value but increased progressively at subsequent time points. This was seen in all cortical layers, however, layers I and Vb recover more rapidly than layers II, III, IV, Va and VI. Removal of the mystacial whiskers corresponding to the deafferented area, 5 weeks after cortical recovery, produced a subsequent 32% drop in metabolic activity, demonstrating peripheral sensory activation of this part of the cortex. Tracing experiments revealed that the deafferented cortex did not receive a novel thalamic input, but cortico-cortical and contralateral barrel cortex projections to this area were reinforced. We conclude that the cortical functional recovery after a thalamic lesion is, at least partially, due to modified cortico-cortical and callosal projections to the deafferented cortical area.

The impact of early life adversity on cortical structure in adolescent twins followed since birth

Des études animales ont montré que l’exposition du foetus à l’adversité affecte le développement cérébral et la régulation d’émotions plus tard. Cette régulation serait reliée aux changements structurels cérébraux, particulièrement au circuit fronto-limbique. Cependant, ces résultats n’ont pas été entièrement répliqués chez l’humain. Le but de cette étude était de tester si l'adversité précoce conduit à des altérations structurelles des régions (orbitofrontal, préfrontal, cingulaire) fronto-limbiques, identifiées comme régions-clés dans la (de)régulation d’émotions. Les mesures principales de l’adversité étaient un poids léger à la naissance et l’hostilité maternelle puisqu’ils étaient parmi les plus prédictifs des résultats développementaux et comportementaux chez l’humain. Les mesures secondaires, incluant le tempérament difficile d’enfant et l’impulsivité en adolescence, étaient utilisées du à leur lien avec le développement cérébral et émotionnel. Les participants étaient des jumeaux identiques, membres de l’Étude des Jumeaux Nouveau-nés du Québec (ÉJNQ, N = 650 paires) suivis depuis 5 mois à 15 ans, leur âge actuel. Ceci a permis de mieux contrôler le facteur génétique et ainsi mieux isoler les effets d’environnement. Trente-sept paires ont été recrutées. La structure cérébrale de chacun, obtenue avec l’imagerie par résonance magnétique, a été analysée avec la régression linéaire. Le poids à la naissance n’a eu aucun effet. L’hostilité maternelle a prédit une réduction de l’aire du gyrus cingulaire postérieur. Tempérament difficile a prédit une réduction de l’aire du cortex orbitofrontal. L’impulsivité était associée avec l’aire et volume du cortex préfrontal réduits. Ces résultats soulignent l’importance des interventions précoces afin d’empêcher des altérations menant à la psychopathologie.

The effect of lesion size on cortical reorganization in the ipsi and contralesional hemispheres.

Bien que la plasticité ipsilesionnelle suite à un accident vasculo-cérébral (AVC) soit bien établie, la réorganisation du cortex contralésionnel et son effet sur la récupération fonctionnelle restent toujours non élucidés. Les études publiées présentent des points de vue contradictoires sur le rôle du cortex contralésionnel dans la récupération fonctionnelle. La taille de lésion pourrait être le facteur déterminant la réorganisation de ce dernier. Le but principal de cette étude fut donc d’évaluer l’effet des AVC de tailles différentes dans la région caudal forelimb area (CFA) du rat sur la réorganisation physiologique et la récupération comportementale de la main. Suite à une période de récupération spontanée pendant laquelle la performance motrice des deux membres antérieurs fut observée, les cartes motrices bilatérales du CFA et du rostral forelimb area (RFA) furent obtenues. Nous avons trouvé que le volume de lésion était en corrélation avec le niveau de récupération comportementale et l’étendue de la réorganisation des RFA bilatéraux. Aussi, les rats ayant de grandes lésions avaient des plus grandes représentations de la main dans le RFA de l’hémisphère ipsilésionnel et un déficit de fonctionnement plus persistant de la main parétique. Dans l’hémisphère contralésionnel nous avons trouvé que les rats avec des plus grandes représentations de la main dans le RFA avaient des lésions plus grandes et une récupération incomplète de la main parétique. Nos résultats confirment l’effet du volume de lésion sur la réorganisation du cortex contralésionnel et soulignent que le RFA est l’aire motrice la plus influencée dans le cortex contralésionnel.

History of amenorrhoea compromises some of the exercise-induced benefits in cortical and trabecular bone in the peripheral and axial skeleton : a study in retired elite gymnasts

Background : Female gymnasts frequently present with overt signs of hypoestrogenism, such as late menarche or menstrual dysfunction. The objective was to investigate the impact of history of amenorrhoea on the exercise-induced skeletal benefits in bone geometry and volumetric density in retired elite gymnasts.
Subjects and methods

24 retired artistic gymnasts, aged 17–36 years, who had been training for at least 15 h/week at the peak of their career and had been retired for 3–18 years were recruited. They had not been engaged in more than 2 h/week of regular physical activity since retirement. Former gymnasts who reported history of amenorrhoea (‘AME’, n = 12: either primary or secondary amenorrhoea) were compared with former gymnasts (‘NO-AME’, n = 12) and controls (‘C’, n = 26) who did not report history of amenorrhoea. Bone mineral content (BMC), total bone area (ToA) and total volumetric density (ToD) were measured by pQCT at the radius and tibia (4% and 66%). Trabecular volumetric density (TrD) and bone strength index (BSI) were measured at the 4% sites. Cortical area (CoA), cortical thickness (CoTh), medullary area (MedA), cortical volumetric density (CoD), stress–strain index (SSI) and muscle and fat area were measured at the 66% sites. Spinal BMC, areal BMD and bone mineral apparent density (BMAD) were measured by DXA.
Results

Menarcheal age was delayed in AME when compared to NO-AME (16.4 ± 0.5 years vs. 13.3 ± 0.4 years, p < 0.001). No differences were detected between AME and C for height-adjusted spinal BMC, aBMD and BMAD, TrD and BSI at the distal radius and tibia, CoA at the proximal radius, whereas these parameters were greater in NO-AME than C (p < 0.05–0.005). AME had lower TrD and BSI at the distal radius, and lower spinal BMAD than NO-AME (p < 0.05) but they had greater ToA at the distal radius (p < 0.05).
Conclusion

Greater spinal BMC, aBMD and BMAD as well as trabecular volumetric density and bone strength in the peripheral skeleton were found in former gymnasts without a history of menstrual dysfunction but not in those who reported either primary or secondary amenorrhoea. History of amenorrhoea may have compromised some of the skeletal benefits associated with high-impact gymnastics training.