How to introduce connectance in a frame of an expression for diversity

Systems made of parts that are totally connected do not work, neither ecosys- tems nor artifacts. Relative connectance is inversely related to diversity, and both magnitudes can find a common frame of expression, in which some constant expressing the constraints of any organization might be embodied. If S is Simp- son's index, the expression (1 - S)IS as a measure of diversity offers some advantages or, at least, helps further reasoning. Such expression is the ratio between total interspecific possible interactions and possible intraspecific inter- actions.

Network connectance and autonomy analyses of the photosynthetic apparatus in tropical tree species from different successional groups under contrasting irradiance conditions

Biological systems are complex dynamical systems whose relationships with environment have strong implications on their regulation and survival. From the interactions between plant and environment can emerge a quite complex network of plant responses rarely observed through classical analytical approaches. The objective of this current study was to test the hypothesis that photosynthetic responses of different tree species to increasing irradiance are related to changes in network connectances of gas exchange and photochemical apparatus, and alterations in plant autonomy in relation to the environment. The heat dissipative capacity through daily changes in leaf temperature was also evaluated. It indicated that the early successional species (Citharexylum myrianthum Cham. and Rhamnidium elaeocarpum Reiss.) were more efficient as dissipative structures than the late successional one (Cariniana legalis (Mart.) Kuntze), suggesting that the parameter deltaT (T ºCair - T ºCleaf) could be a simple tool in order to help the classification of successional classes of tropical trees. Our results indicated a pattern of network responses and autonomy changes under high irradiance. Considering the maintenance of daily CO2 assimilation, the tolerant species (C. myrianthum and R. elaeocarpum) to high irradiance trended to maintain stable the level of gas exchange network connectance and to increase the autonomy in relation to the environment. On the other hand, the late successional species (C. legalis) trended to lose autonomy, decreasing the network connectance of gas exchange. All species showed lower autonomy and higher network connectance of the photochemical apparatus under high irradiance.

Using network connectance and autonomy analyses to uncover patterns of photosynthetic responses in tropical woody species

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Disease, habitat fragmentation and conservation

Habitat loss and the resultant fragmentation of remaining habitat is the primary cause of loss of biological diversity. How do these processes affect the dynamics of parasites and pathogens? Hess has provided some important insights into this problem using metapopulation models for pathogens that exhibit 'S-I' dynamics; for example, pathogens such as rabies in which the host population may be divided into susceptible and infected individuals. A major assumption of Hess's models is that infected patches become extinct, rather than recovering and becoming resistant to future infections. In this paper, we build upon this framework in two different ways: first, we examine the consequences of including patches that are resistant to infection; second, we examine the consequences of including a second species of host that can act as a reservoir for the pathogen. Both of these effects are likely to be important from a conservation perspective. The results of both sets of analysis indicate that the benefits of corridors and other connections that allow species to disperse through the landscape far outweigh the possible risks of increased pathogen transmission. Even in the commonest case, where harmful pathogens are maintained by a common reservoir host, increased landscape connectance still allows greater coexistence and persistence of a threatened or endangered host.

Limiting factors in the restoration of UK grassland beetle assemblages

Grasslands restoration is a key management tool contributing to the long-term maintenance of insect populations, providing functional connectivity and mitigating against extinction debt across landscapes. As knowledge of grassland insect communities is limited, the lag between the initiation of restoration and the ability of these new habitats to contribute to such processes is unclear. Using ten data sets, ranging from 3 to 14 years, we investigate the lag between restoration and the establishment of phytophagous beetle assemblages typical of species rich grasslands. We used traits and ecological characteristics to determine factors limiting beetle colonisation, and also considered how food-web structure changed during restoration. For sites where seed addition of host-plants occurred the success in replicating beetle assemblages increased over time following a negative exponential function. Extrapolation beyond the existing data set tentatively suggested that success would plateau after 20 years, representing a c. 60% increase in assemblage similarity to target grasslands. In the absence of seed addition, similarity to the target grasslands showed no increase over time. Where seed addition was used the connectance of plant-herbivore food webs decreased over time, approaching values typical of species rich grasslands after c. 7 years. This trend was, however, dependent on the inclusion of a single site containing data in excess of 6 years of restoration management. Beetles not capable of flight, those showing high degrees of host-plant specialisation and species feeding on nationally rare host plants take between 1 and 3 years longer to colonise. Successful grassland restoration is underpinned by the establishment of host-plants, although individual species traits compound the effects of poor host-plant establishment to slow colonisation. The use of pro-active grassland restoration to mitigate against future environmental change should account for lag periods in excess of 10 years if the value of these habitats is to be fully realised.

The modularity of seed dispersal: differences in structure and robustness between bat- and bird-fruit networks

In networks of plant-animal mutualisms, different animal groups interact preferentially with different plants, thus forming distinct modules responsible for different parts of the service. However, what we currently know about seed dispersal networks is based only on birds. Therefore, we wished to fill this gap by studying bat-fruit networks and testing how they differ from bird-fruit networks. As dietary overlap of Neotropical bats and birds is low, they should form distinct mutualistic modules within local networks. Furthermore, since frugivory evolved only once among Neotropical bats, but several times independently among Neotropical birds, greater dietary overlap is expected among bats, and thus connectance and nestedness should be higher in bat-fruit networks. If bat-fruit networks have higher nestedness and connectance, they should be more robust to extinctions. We analyzed 1 mixed network of both bats and birds and 20 networks that consisted exclusively of either bats (11) or birds (9). As expected, the structure of the mixed network was both modular (M = 0.45) and nested (NODF = 0.31); one module contained only birds and two only bats. In 20 datasets with only one disperser group, bat-fruit networks (NODF = 0.53 +/- A 0.09, C = 0.30 +/- A 0.11) were more nested and had a higher connectance than bird-fruit networks (NODF = 0.42 +/- A 0.07, C = 0.22 +/- A 0.09). Unexpectedly, robustness to extinction of animal species was higher in bird-fruit networks (R = 0.60 +/- A 0.13) than in bat-fruit networks (R = 0.54 +/- A 0.09), and differences were explained mainly by species richness. These findings suggest that a modular structure also occurs in seed dispersal networks, similar to pollination networks. The higher nestedness and connectance observed in bat-fruit networks compared with bird-fruit networks may be explained by the monophyletic evolution of frugivory in Neotropical bats, among which the diets of specialists seem to have evolved from the pool of fruits consumed by generalists.

O componente arbóreo de matas de restinga arenosa no Parque Estadual de Itapuã, Rio Grande do Sul : fitossociologia, regeneração e padrões de interações mutualistas com a avifauna

Esta dissertação teve como objetivo geral ampliar o conhecimento sobre a ecologia vegetal das matas de Restinga arenosa em substratos bem drenados no Rio Grande do Sul. Para tanto, foram realizados o estudo florístico e fitossociológico do componente arbóreo de cinco capões de Restinga e a verificação de padrões de interações mutualísticas entre aves frugívoras e as árvores, além do estudo do componente de regeneração e suas relações com o estrato arbóreo adulto. Para a amostragem da vegetação, foi usado o método de parcelas, incluindo-se todas as árvores com DAP ≥ 5cm, totalizando uma área de 1,02ha. Com estes dados, foram estimados os parâmetros usuais em fitossociologia. Em um dos capões, foi realizado também o levantamento florístico e fitossociológico das plântulas (0,05 ≤ altura < 1m) e juvenis (altura ≥ 1m, DAP < 5cm), avaliando-se as relações com o estrato arbóreo adulto, o potencial e a taxa de regeneração natural para cada espécie. Para o estudo dos mutualismos, foram feitas observações visuais e capturas de aves durante um ano. Foram estimadas a conectância do sistema mutualístico e o índice de importância das espécies. Também foi feita a rede de interações do sistema e feita a análise da variação destas interações ao longo das estações do ano. A composição florística resultou em uma riqueza total de 20 famílias e 29 espécies para os cinco capões. A densidade total arbórea teve uma média máxima de 1207 ind/ha e mínima de 747 ind/ha. Sebastiania serrata apresentou o maior valor de importância e Myrtaceae foi a família mais representada. A diversidade específica foi baixa, variando de 1,08 a 2,38 (nats). No sistema mutualístico, registraram-se 29 espécies interagindo (aves e plantas), com uma conectância de 23,9%. Turdus amaurochalinus e T. rufiventris interagiram com a maioria das espécies arbóreas e tiveram o maior índice de importância, sendo caracterizadas como as principais dispersoras em potencial. Ocotea pulchella e Myrsine spp. foram registradas com maior número de eventos de consumo de frutos, no entanto, Ficus organesis interagiu com mais espécies frugívoras, além de ter a maior importância na dieta das aves. Houve variações no número eventos de frugivoria ao longo das estações, bem como no número de espécies frugívoras e de espécies arbóreas consumidas. O componente de regeneração apresentou riqueza específica e diversidade semelhantes às do estrato arbóreo adulto, refletindo uma similaridade florística maior que 70%. A maioria das espécies (73,7%) apresentou taxa de regeneração negativa, revelando o padrão de 'J' invertido. Os resultados indicam a existência de diferenças na composição e estrutura arbórea entre os capões de Restinga, além de uma boa capacidade de regeneração para a maioria das espécies vegetais estudadas. Os dados revelam também um sistema dispersão generalista, no qual poucas espécies de aves interagem com muitas espécies arbóreas e vice-versa.

Invasive Africanized honeybees change the structure of native pollination networks in Brazil

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Identification of key microhabitats for fish assemblages in tropical Brazilian savanna streams

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Food web structure in a tropical stream ecosystem

This study investigated the structure and properties of a tropical stream food web in a small spatial scale, characterizing its planktonic, epiphytic and benthic compartments. The study was carried out in the Potreirinho Creek, a second-order stream located in the south-east of Brazil. Some attributes of the three subwebs and of the conglomerate food web, composed by the trophic links of the three compartments plus the fish species, were determined. Among compartments, the food webs showed considerable variation in structure. The epiphytic food web was consistently more complex than the planktonic and benthic webs. The values of number of species, number of links and maximum food chain length were significantly higher in the epiphytic compartment than in the other two. Otherwise, the connectance was significantly lower in epiphyton. The significant differences of most food web parameters were determined by the increase in the number of trophic species, represented mainly by basal and intermediate species. High species richness, detritus-based system and high degree of omnivory characterized the stream food web studied. The aquatic macrophytes probably provide a substratum more stable and structurally complex than the sediment. We suggest that the greater species richness and trophic complexity in the epiphytic subweb might be due to the higher degree of habitat complexity supported by macrophyte substrate. Despite differences observed in the structure of the three subwebs, they are highly connected by trophic interactions, mainly by fishes. The high degree of fish omnivory associated with their movements at different spatial scales suggests that these animals have a significant role in the food web dynamic of Potreirinho Creek. This interface between macrophytes and the interconnections resultant from fish foraging, diluted the compartmentalization of the Potreirinho food web.

Biodiversity, Species Interactions and Ecological Networks in a Fragmented World

Biodiversity is organised into complex ecological networks of interacting species in local ecosystems, but our knowledge about the effects of habitat fragmentation on such systems remains limited. We consider the effects of this key driver of both local and global change on both mutualistic and antagonistic systems at different levels of biological organisation and spatiotemporal scales.There is a complex interplay of patterns and processes related to the variation and influence of spatial, temporal and biotic drivers in ecological networks. Species traits (e.g. body size, dispersal ability) play an important role in determining how networks respond to fragment size and isolation, edge shape and permeability, and the quality of the surrounding landscape matrix. Furthermore, the perception of spatial scale (e.g. environmental grain) and temporal effects (time lags, extinction debts) can differ markedly among species, network modules and trophic levels, highlighting the need to develop a more integrated perspective that considers not just nodes, but the structural role and strength of species interactions (e.g. as hubs, spatial couplers and determinants of connectance, nestedness and modularity) in response to habitat fragmentation.Many challenges remain for improving our understanding: the likely importance of specialisation, functional redundancy and trait matching has been largely overlooked. The potentially critical effects of apex consumers, abundant species and supergeneralists on network changes and evolutionary dynamics also need to be addressed in future research. Ultimately, spatial and ecological networks need to be combined to explore the effects of dispersal, colonisation, extinction and habitat fragmentation on network structure and coevolutionary dynamics. Finally, we need to embed network approaches more explicitly within applied ecology in general, because they offer great potential for improving on the current species-based or habitat-centric approaches to our management and conservation of biodiversity in the face of environmental change.

Caracterização sistêmica de alterações em redes fisiológicas de plantas C3 e C4 submetidas à deficiência hídrica

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Contribuições da conectância de rede e complexidade da dinâmica do sistema de trocas gasosas para a estabilidade na utilização de luz por espécies florestais

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Interação mutualística entre aves frugívoras de sub-bosque e plantas no Parque Ecológico de Gunma, Santa Bárbara do Pará

O consumo de frutos por aves pode representar uma relação mutualística, na qual estas o utilizam como fonte de nutrientes, deixando as sementes intactas. Tais interações podem ser descritas por redes, as quais podem ocorrem ao acaso ou assumem um padrão. O presente estudo objetivou determinar a estruturação da rede na floresta primária e secundária, assim como o nível de aninhamento das interações da assembléia de aves de sub-bosque e espécies de vegetais do Parque Ecológico de Gunma, situado na região Amazônica. Foram realizadas captura de aves com redes ornitológicas para identificação da espécie, coleta e análise das fezes, no período de março a dezembro de 2007. Os dados foram empregados para determinação da conectância, do aninhamento do sistema mutualístico, do índice de importância das espécies e para elaboração da rede de interação. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o grau de aninhamento na floresta secundária foi maior que na primária e, a rede de interação final do Parque Ecológico de Gunma foi composta por 37 espécies (animais e plantas) interagindo com conectância de 18% e grau de aninhamento de 95%. As aves potencialmente dispersoras de sementes foram representadas por 20 espécies, destacando-se as famílias Pipridae, Tyrannidae, Turdidae e Thraupidae. Dixiphia pipra foi a principal dispersora nas duas fisionomias estudadas, seguido de Lipaugus vociferans na floresta primária e Cyanerpes caerulens na floresta secundária. Dentre os vegetais, 17 espécies fizeram parte da dieta das aves, e Miconia ciliata apresentou o maior índice de importância, pois interagiu com 16 espécies de aves, seguida de Phthirusa micrantha, na floresta primária, e Euterpe oleracea na floresta secundária.

Shading effects on community composition and food web structure of a deforested pasture stream: Evidences from a field experiment in Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)