Compressed air energy storage in Illinois : a study and report /

Cover title.

Dynamic model development of adiabatic compressed air energy storage

The share of variable renewable energy in electricity generation has seen exponential growth during the recent decades, and due to the heightened pursuit of environmental targets, the trend is to continue with increased pace. The two most important resources, wind and insolation both bear the burden of intermittency, creating a need for regulation and posing a threat to grid stability. One possibility to deal with the imbalance between demand and generation is to store electricity temporarily, which was addressed in this thesis by implementing a dynamic model of adiabatic compressed air energy storage (CAES) with Apros dynamic simulation software. Based on literature review, the existing models due to their simplifications were found insufficient for studying transient situations, and despite of its importance, the investigation of part load operation has not yet been possible with satisfactory precision. As a key result of the thesis, the cycle efficiency at design point was simulated to be 58.7%, which correlated well with literature information, and was validated through analytical calculations. The performance at part load was validated against models shown in literature, showing good correlation. By introducing wind resource and electricity demand data to the model, grid operation of CAES was studied. In order to enable the dynamic operation, start-up and shutdown sequences were approximated in dynamic environment, as far as is known, the first time, and a user component for compressor variable guide vanes (VGV) was implemented. Even in the current state, the modularly designed model offers a framework for numerous studies. The validity of the model is limited by the accuracy of VGV correlations at part load, and in addition the implementation of heat losses to the thermal energy storage is necessary to enable longer simulations. More extended use of forecasts is one of the important targets of development, if the system operation is to be optimised in future.

Revisiting compressed air energy storage.

The use of renewable energies as a response to the EU targets defined for 2030 Climate Change and Energy has been increasing. Also non-dispatchable and intermittent renewable energies like wind and solar cannot generally match supply and demand, which can also cause some problems in the grid. So, the increased interest in energy storage has evolved and there is nowadays an urgent need for larger energy storage capacity. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) is a proven technology for storing large quantities of electrical energy in the form of high-pressure air for later use when electricity is needed. It exists since the 1970’s and is one of the few energy storage technologies suitable for long duration (tens of hours) and utility scale (hundreds to thousands of MW) applications. It is also one of the most cost-effective solutions for large to small scale storage applications. Compressed Air Energy Storage can be integrated and bring advantages to different levels of the electric system, from the Generation level, to the Transmission and Distribution levels, so in this paper a revisit of CAES is done in order to better understand what and how it can be used for our modern needs of energy storage.

Large scale underground energy storage for renewables integration: general criteria for reservoir identification and viable technologies.

The increasing integration of renewable energies in the electricity grid contributes considerably to achieve the European Union goals on energy and Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions reduction. However, it also brings problems to grid management. Large scale energy storage can provide the means for a better integration of the renewable energy sources, for balancing supply and demand, to increase energy security, to enhance a better management of the grid and also to converge towards a low carbon economy. Geological formations have the potential to store large volumes of fluids with minimal impact to environment and society. One of the ways to ensure a large scale energy storage is to use the storage capacity in geological reservoir. In fact, there are several viable technologies for underground energy storage, as well as several types of underground reservoirs that can be considered. The geological energy storage technologies considered in this research were: Underground Gas Storage (UGS), Hydrogen Storage (HS), Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), Underground Pumped Hydro Storage (UPHS) and Thermal Energy Storage (TES). For these different types of underground energy storage technologies there are several types of geological reservoirs that can be suitable, namely: depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs, aquifers, salt formations and caverns, engineered rock caverns and abandoned mines. Specific site screening criteria are applicable to each of these reservoir types and technologies, which determines the viability of the reservoir itself, and of the technology for any particular site. This paper presents a review of the criteria applied in the scope of the Portuguese contribution to the EU funded project ESTMAP – Energy Storage Mapping and Planning.

Análise de ciclo avançado com seqüestro de carbono

The energy is considered one of the most important elements in the human´s life providing the survival as well as the well being. Nowadays, the technologies destined to generate power burn fossil fuels which pour gases (carbon dioxide among them) that contribute to the global warming phenomenon. Several research groups and universities have been studying different methods for generating power with low carbon dioxide emissions, including the possibility of burning zero-carbon fuels. In this text, it has been put attention to the Advanced Zero Emission Power Plants (AZEP) which separate the CO2 (from the gases involved in the power generation), compress it, dehydrate it and store it in appropriate reservoirs. The goal of this study was to find a possible solution to produce CO from CO2, activated by solar energy; the reaction between CO and steam generates a syngas comprised of H2 and CO2, which can be separated by chemical and/or physical processes. The text also contains a study concerning the compressed air energy storage power plant (CAES) and come up with its modification to C[CO2]ES. This power plant stores CO2 directing it to a reverse combustion process to produce CO which is headed to a syngas reactor to produce CO2 and H2. Hydrogen is separated and carried to the thermal cycle to generate power with low carbon emissions

Evaluación de la tecnología CAES como sistema de almacenamiento de energía eólica. Caso de estudio en España

Se presenta a continuación un modelo de una planta del almacenamiento de energía mediante aire comprimido siguiendo un proceso adiabático. En esta planta la energía eólica sobrante se usa para comprimir aire mediante un tren de compresión de 25 MW, el aire comprimido será después almacenado en una caverna de sal a 770 metros de profundidad. La compresión se llevará a cabo por la noche, durante 6 horas, debido a los bajos precios de electricidad. Cuando los precios de la electricidad suben durante el día, el aire comprimido es extraído de la caverna de sal y es utilizado para producir energía en un tren de expansión de 70 MW durante 3 horas. La localización elegida para la planta es el norte de Burgos (Castilla y León, España), debido a la coincidencia de la existencia de muchos parques eólicos y una formación con las propiedades necesarias para el almacenamiento. El aspecto más importante de este proyecto es la utilización de un almacenamiento térmico que permitirá aprovechar el calor de la compresión para calentar el aire a la entrada de la expansión, eliminando combustibles fósiles del sistema. Por consiguiente, este proyecto es una atractiva solución en un posible futuro con emisiones de carbono restringidas, cuando la integración de energía renovable en la red eléctrica supone un reto importante. ABSTRACT: A model of an adiabatic compressed air energy storage plant is presented. In this plant surplus wind energy is used to compress air by means of a 25 MW compression train, the compressed air will be later stored in a salt cavern at 770 meters depth. Compression is carried out at night time, during 6 hours, because power prices are lower. When power prices go up during the day, the compressed air is withdrawn from the salt cavern and is used to produce energy in an expansion train of 70 MW during 3 hours. The chosen location for the plant is in the north of Burgos (Castilla y León, Spain), due to both the existence of several wind farms and a suitable storage facility with good properties at the same place. The relevance of this project is that it is provided with a thermal storage, which allows using the generated heat in the compression for re-heating the air before the expansion, eliminating fossil fuels from the system. Hence, this system is an attractive load balancing solution in a possibly carbon-constrained future, where the integration of renewable energy sources into the electric grid is a major challenge.

Development of solar air heaters & thermal energy storage system for drying applications in food processing industries

In the present work, the author has designed and developed all types of solar air heaters called porous and nonporous collectors. The developed solar air heaters were subjected to different air mass flow rates in order to standardize the flow per unit area of the collector. Much attention was given to investigate the performance of the solar air heaters fitted with baffles. The output obtained from the experiments on pilot models, helped the installation of solar air heating system for industrial drying applications also. Apart from these, various types of solar dryers, for small and medium scale drying applications, were also built up. The feasibility of ‘latent heat thermal energy storage system’ based on Phase Change Material was also undertaken. The application of solar greenhouse for drying industrial effluent was analyzed in the present study and a solar greenhouse was developed. The effectiveness of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in the field of solar air heaters was also analyzed. The thesis is divided into eight chapters.

Predictive Optimal Matrix Converter Control for a Dynamic Voltage Restorer with Flywheel Energy Storage

This paper presents a predictive optimal matrix converter controller for a flywheel energy storage system used as Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR). The flywheel energy storage device is based on a steel seamless tube mounted as a vertical axis flywheel to store kinetic energy. The motor/generator is a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine driven by the AC-AC Matrix Converter. The matrix control method uses a discrete-time model of the converter system to predict the expected values of the input and output currents for all the 27 possible vectors generated by the matrix converter. An optimal controller minimizes control errors using a weighted cost functional. The flywheel and control process was tested as a DVR to mitigate voltage sags and swells. Simulation results show that the DVR is able to compensate the critical load voltage without delays, voltage undershoots or overshoots, overcoming the input/output coupling of matrix converters.

Energy storage systems (sistemas de armazenamento de energia)

O armazenamento de energia pode ser efetuado sobre cinco categorias, designadamente, elétrica, eletromecânica, mecânica, térmica e química. Contudo, o assunto aqui debatido é sobre meios de armazenamento de energia elétrica, sendo que o armazenamento de eletricidade é usualmente efetuado recorrendo a outros géneros de energia, tais como, química, mecânica, térmica ou, até, em energia potencial. [1]. Há nos dias de hoje uma crescente preocupação na forma como é gerido o setor elétrico, uma vez que este implica um elevado impacto ambiental. Neste sentido tem havido algumas alterações, nomeadamente, no que diz respeito à produção de energia elétrica. A utilização de energias renováveis estão cada vez mais presentes na produção de eletricidade (Figura 1), pois permitem diminuir de forma indireta a utilização dos combustíveis fósseis, sendo esta a principal vantagem face às centrais de produção convencionais.

Towards cryogenic liquid –vapor energy storage units for space applications

Dissertation to obtain the Doctoral degree in Physics Engineering

A constructive technology assessment of stationary energy storage systems: prospective life cycle orientated analysis

Based on the presentation and discussion at the 3rd Winter School on Technology Assessment, December 2012, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (Portugal), Caparica Campus, PhD programme on Technology Assessment

40 K Liquid Neon Energy Storage Unit

A thermal Energy Storage Unit (ESU) could be used to attenuate inherent temperature fluctuations of a cold finger, either from a cryocooler working or due to sudden income heat bursts. An ESU directly coupled to the cold source acts as a thermal buffer temporarily increasing its cooling capacity and providing a better thermal stability of the cold finger (“Power Booster mode”). The energy storage units presented here use an enthalpy reservoir based on the high latent heat of the liquid-vapour transition of neon in the temperature range 38 - 44 K to store up to 900 J, and that uses a 6 liters expansion volume at RT in order to work as a closed system. Experimental results in the power booster mode will be described: in this case, the liquid neon cell was directly coupled to the cold finger of the working cryocooler, its volume (12 cm3) allowing it to store 450 J at around 40 K. 10 W heat bursts were applied, leading to liquid evaporation, with quite reduced temperature changes. The liquid neon reservoir can also work as a temporary cold source to be used after stopping the cryocooler, allowing for a vibration-free environment. In this case the enthalpy reservoir implemented (24 cm3) was linked to the cryocooler cold finger through a gas gap heat switch for thermal coupling/decoupling of the cold finger. We will show that, by controlling the enthalpy reservoir’s pressure, 900 J can be stored at a constant temperature of 40 K as in a triple-point ESU.

40 K Neon liquid energy storage unit

Cryocoolers have been progressively replacing the use of the stored cryogens in cryogenic chains used for detector cooling, thanks to their higher and higher reliability. However, the mechanical vibrations, the electromagnetic interferences and the temperature fluctuations inherent to their functioning could reduce the sensor’s sensitivity. In order to minimize this problem, compact thermal energy storage units (ESU) are studied, devices able to store thermal energy without significant temperature increase. These devices can be used as a temporary cold source making it possible to turn the cryocooler OFF providing a proper environment for the sensor. A heat switch is responsible for the thermal decoupling of the ESU from the cryocooler’s temperature that increases when turned OFF. In this work, several prototypes working around 40 K were designed, built and characterized. They consist in a low temperature cell that contains the liquid neon connected to an expansion volume at room temperature for gas storage during the liquid evaporation phase. To turn this system insensitive to the gravity direction, the liquid is retained in the low temperature cell by capillary effect in a porous material. Thanks to pressure regulation of the liquid neon bath, 900 J were stored at 40K. The higher latent heat of the liquid and the inexistence of triple point transitions at 40 K turn the pressure control during the evaporation a versatile and compact alternative to an ESU working at the triple point transitions. A quite compact second prototype ESU directly connected to the cryocooler cold finger was tested as a temperature stabilizer. This device was able to stabilize the cryocooler temperature ((≈ 40K ±1 K) despite sudden heat bursts corresponding to twice the cooling power of the cryocooler. This thesis describes the construction of these devices as well as the tests performed. It is also shown that the thermal model developed to predict the thermal behaviour of these devices, implemented as a software,describes quite well the experimental results. Solutions to improve these devices are also proposed.

40 K neon liquid energy storage unit

Cryocoolers have been progressively replacing the use of the stored cryogens in cryogenic chains used for detector cooling, thanks to their higher and higher reliability. However, the mechanical vibrations, the electromagnetic interferences and the temperature fluctuations inherent to their functioning could reduce the sensor’s sensitivity. In order to minimize this problem, compact thermal energy storage units (ESU) are studied, devices able to store thermal energy without significant temperature increase. These devices can be used as a temporary cold source making it possible to turn the cryocooler OFF providing a proper environment for the sensor. A heat switch is responsible for the thermal decoupling of the ESU from the cryocooler’s temperature that increases when turned OFF. In this work, several prototypes working around 40 K were designed, built and characterized. They consist in a low temperature cell that contains the liquid neon connected to an expansion volume at room temperature for gas storage during the liquid evaporation phase. To turn this system insensitive to the gravity direction, the liquid is retained in the low temperature cell by capillary effect in a porous material. Thanks to pressure regulation of the liquid neon bath, 900 J were stored at 40K. The higher latent heat of the liquid and the inexistence of triple point transitions at 40 K turn the pressure control during the evaporation a versatile and compact alternative to an ESU working at the triple point transitions. A quite compact second prototype ESU directly connected to the cryocooler cold finger was tested as a temperature stabilizer. This device was able to stabilize the cryocooler temperature ((≈ 40K ±1 K) despite sudden heat bursts corresponding to twice the cooling power of the cryocooler. This thesis describes the construction of these devices as well as the tests performed. It is also shown that the thermal model developed to predict the thermal behaviour of these devices,implemented as a software, describes quite well the experimental results. Solutions to improve these devices are also proposed.

Assessing the feasibility of impregnating phase change materials in lightweight aggregate for development of thermal energy storage systems

This paper assesses the feasibility of impregnation/encasement of phase change materials (PCMs) in lightweight aggregates (LWAs). An impregnation process was adopted to carry out the encasement study of two different PCMs in four different LWAs. The leakage of the impregnated/encased PCMs was studied when they were submitted to freeze/thawing and oven drying tests, separately. The results confirmed that, the impregnation/encasement method is effective with respect to the large thermal energy storage density, and can be suitable for applications were PCMs cannot be incorporated directly such as asphalt road pavements.