Reflections on the concept of the central executive

Notes that the central executive lies at the heart of A. D. Baddeley's theory of working memory, but that what it does has been characterized in several different ways. This chapter reviews and brings together various interpretations of central executive functioning. The authors describe an experiment involving a novel cognitive task to point out the restrictive nature of the term 'executive capacity.' The chapter concludes by commenting briefly on the implications of a working memory model in which the executive does not play a major part.

Executive control of working memory in schizophrenia

There is considerable evidence that working memory impairment is a common feature of schizophrenia. The present study assessed working memory and executive function in 54 participants with schizophrenia, and a group of 54 normal controls matched to the patients on age, gender and estimated premorbid IQ, using traditional and newer measures of executive function and two dual tasks—Telephone Search with Counting and the Memory Span and Tracking Task. Results indicated that participants with schizophrenia were significantly impaired on all standardised measures of executive function with the exception of a composite measure of the Trail Making Test. Results for the dual task measures demonstrated that while the participants with schizophrenia were unimpaired on immediate digit span recall over a 2-min period, they recalled fewer digit strings and performed more poorly on a tracking task (box-crossing task) compared with controls. In addition, participants with schizophrenia performed more poorly on the tracking task when they were required to simultaneously recall digits strings than when they performed this task alone. Contrary to expectation, results of the telephone search task under dual conditions were not significantly different between groups. These results may reflect the insufficient complexity of the tone-counting task as an interference task. Overall, the present study showed that participants with schizophrenia appear to have a restricted impairment of their working memory system that is evident in tasks in which the visuospatial sketchpad slave system requires central executive control.

Language and executive functioning: Children’s benefit from induced verbal strategies in different tasks

The interplay of language and cognition in children’s development has been subject to research for a long time. The present study followed up on recently reported deleterious effects of articulatory suppression on children’s executive functioning (Fatzer & Roebers, 2012), aiming to provide more empirical evidence on the differential influence of language on executive functioning. In the present study, verbal strategies were induced in three executive functioning tasks. The tasks were linked to the three central executive functioning dimensions of updating (Complex Span task), shifting (Cognitive Flexibility task) and inhibition (Flanker task). It was expected that the effects of the verbal strategy instruction would counter the results of articulatory suppression and thus be strong in the Complex Span task, weak but present in the Cognitive Flexibility task and small or nonexistent in the Flanker task. N = 117 children participated in the study, with n = 39 four-year-olds, n = 38 six-year-olds, and n = 40 nine-year-olds. As expected, results revealed a benefit from induced verbal strategies in the Complex Span and the Cognitive Flexibility task, but not in the Flanker task. The positive effect of strategy instruction declined with increasing age, pointing to more frequent spontaneous and self-initiated use of verbal strategies over the course of development. The effect of strategy instruction in the Cognitive Flexibility task was unexpectedly strong in the light of the only small detrimental effect of articulatory suppression in the preceding study. Implications for language’s involvement in the different executive functioning dimensions and for practice are discussed.

Executive control of working memory in schizophrenia

There is considerable evidence that working memory impairment is a common feature of schizophrenia. The present study assessed working memory and executive function in 54 participants with schizophrenia, and a group of 54 normal controls matched to the patients on age, gender and estimated premorbid IQ, using traditional and newer measures of executive function and two dual tasks-Telephone Search with Counting and the Memory Span and Tracking Task. Results indicated that participants with schizophrenia were significantly impaired on all standardised measures of executive function with the exception of a composite measure of the Trail Making Test. Results for the dual task measures demonstrated that while the participants with schizophrenia were unimpaired on immediate digit span recall over a 2-min period, they recalled fewer digit strings and performed more poorly on a tracking task (box-crossing task) compared with controls. In addition, participants with schizophrenia performed more poorly on the tracking task when they were required to simultaneously recall digits strings than when they performed this task alone. Contrary to expectation, results of the telephone search task under dual conditions were not significantly different between groups. These results may reflect the insufficient complexity of the tone-counting task as an interference task. Overall, the present study showed that participants with schizophrenia appear to have a restricted impairment of their working memory system that is evident in tasks in which the visuospatial sketchpad slave system requires central executive control. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Body iron is associated with cognitive executive planning function in college women

Evidence of the relationship between altered cognitive function and depleted Fe status is accumulating in women of reproductive age but the degree of Fe deficiency associated with negative neuropsychological outcomes needs to be delineated. Data are limited regarding this relationship in university women in whom optimal cognitive function is critical to academic success. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between body Fe, in the absence of Fe-deficiency anaemia, and neuropsychological function in young college women. Healthy, non-Anaemic undergraduate women (n 42) provided a blood sample and completed a standardised cognitive test battery consisting of one manual (Tower of London (TOL), a measure of central executive function) and five computerised (Bakan vigilance task, mental rotation, simple reaction time, immediate word recall and two-finger tapping) tasks. Women's body Fe ranged from - 4·2 to 8·1 mg/kg. General linear model ANOVA revealed a significant effect of body Fe on TOL planning time (P= 0.002). Spearman's correlation coefficients showed a significant inverse relationship between body Fe and TOL planning time for move categories 4 (r - 0.39, P= 0.01) and 5 (r - 0.47, P= 0.002). Performance on the computerised cognitive tasks was not affected by body Fe level. These findings suggest that Fe status in the absence of anaemia is positively associated with central executive function in otherwise healthy college women. Copyright © The Authors 2012.

Intuitive interaction, prior experience and aging : an empirical study

This paper describes an experiment undertaken to investigate intuitive interaction, particularly in older adults. Previous work has shown that intuitive interaction relies on past experience, and has also suggested that older people demonstrate less intuitive uses and slower times when completing set tasks with various devices. Similarly, this experiment showed that past experience with relevant products allowed people to use the interfaces of two different microwaves more quickly, although there were no significant differences between the different microwaves. It also revealed that certain aspects of cognitive decline related to aging, such as central executive function, have more impact on time, correct uses and intuitive uses than chronological age. Implications of these results and further work in this area are discussed.

The effects of cognitive ageing on the use of complex interfaces

This paper discusses an experiment investigating the effects of cognitive ageing and prior-experience with technology on using complex interfaces intuitively. Overall 37 participants, between the ages of 18 to 83, participated in this study. All participants were assessed for their cognitive abilities and prior-experience with technology. It was anticipated that the Central Executive function (a component of Working Memory) would emerge as one of the important cognitive functions in using complex interfaces. This was found to be the case with the strongest negative correlation occurring between sustained attention (one of the functions of the Central Executive), the time to complete the task and number of errors made by the participants.

Older adults, interface experience and cognitive decline

This paper describes an experiment undertaken to investigate intuitive interaction, particularly in older adults. Previous work has shown that intuitive interaction relies on past experience, and has also suggested that older people demonstrate less intuitive uses and slower times when completing set tasks with various devices. Similarly, this experiment showed that past experience with relevant products allowed people to use the interfaces of two different microwaves more quickly and intuitively. It also revealed that certain aspects of cognitive decline related to aging, such as central executive function, have more impact on time, correct uses and intuitive uses than chronological age. Implications of these results are discussed.

Ageing and use of complex product interfaces

This paper presents an experiment designed to investigate if redundancy in an interface has any impact on the use of complex interfaces by older people and people with low prior-experience with technology. The important findings of this study were that older people (65+ years) completed the tasks on the Words only based interface faster than on Redundant (text and symbols) interface. The rest of the participants completed tasks significantly faster on the Redundant interface. From a cognitive processing perspective, sustained attention (one of the functions of Central Executive) has emerged as one of the important factors in completing tasks on complex interfaces faster and with fewer of errors.

The impact of anxiety on processing efficiency : implications for the attentional control theory

The Attentional Control Theory (ACT) proposes that high-anxious individuals maintain performance effectiveness (accuracy) at the expense of processing efficiency (response time), in particular, the two central executive functions of inhibition and shifting. In contrast, research has generally failed to consider the third executive function which relates to the function of updating. In the current study, seventy-five participants completed the Parametric Go/No-Go and n-back tasks, as well as the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory in order to explore the effects of anxiety on attention. Results indicated that anxiety lead to decay in processing efficiency, but not in performance effectiveness, across all three Central Executive functions (inhibition, set-shifting and updating). Interestingly, participants with high levels of trait anxiety also exhibited impaired performance effectiveness on the n-back task designed to measure the updating function. Findings are discussed in relation to developing a new model of ACT that also includes the role of preattentive processes and dual-task coordination when exploring the effects of anxiety on task performance.

Driven by distraction: Investigating the effects of anxiety on driving performance using the Attentional Control Theory

This study investigates the effects of trait anxiety on self-reported driving behaviours through its negative impacts on Central Executive functions. Following a self-report study that found trait anxiety to be significantly related to driving behaviours, the present study extended the predictions of Eysenck and Calvo’s Attentional Control Theory, proposing that anxiety affects driving behaviours, in particular driving lapses, through its impact across the Central Executive. Seventy-five Australian drivers participated in the study, completing the Parametric Go/No-Go and n-back tasks, as well as the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Driving Behaviour Questionnaire. While both trait anxiety and processing efficiency of the Central Executive was found to significantly predict driving lapses, trait anxiety remained a strong predictor of driving lapses after processing efficiency was controlled for. It is concluded that while processing efficiency of the central Executive is a key determinant of driving lapses, another Central Executive function that is closer to the driving lapses in the trait anxiety – driving lapses relationship may be needed. Suggestions regarding how to improve future trait anxiety – driving behaviours research are discussed.

Visuaalis-spatiaalisten työmuistivalmiuksien yhteys (esi)matemaattisiin taitoihin ja merkitys osana matemaattisilta taidoiltaan heikkojen lasten ja nuorten kognitiivista profiilia

Tämän itsenäisistä osatutkimuksista koostuvan tutkimussarjan tavoitteena oli pyrkiä täydentämään kuvaa matemaattisilta taidoiltaan heikkojen lasten ja nuorten tiedonkäsittelyvalmiuksista selvittämällä, ovatko visuaalis-spatiaaliset työmuistivalmiudet yhteydessä matemaattiseen suoriutumiseen. Teoreettinen viitekehys rakentui Baddeleyn (1986, 1997) kolmikomponenttimallin ympärille. Työmuistikäsitys oli kuitenkin esikuvaansa laajempi sisällyttäen visuaalis-spatiaaliseen työmuistiin Cornoldin ja Vecchin (2003) termein sekä passiiviset varastotoiminnot että aktiiviset prosessointitoiminnot. Yhteyksiä työmuistin ja matemaattisten taitojen välillä tarkasteltiin viiden eri osatutkimuksen avulla. Kaksi ensimmäistä keskittyivät alle kouluikäisten lukukäsitteen hallinnan ja visuaalis-spatiaalisten työmuistivalmiuksen tutkimiseen ja kolme jälkimmäistä peruskoulun yhdeksäsluokkalaisten matemaattisten taitojen ja visuaalis-spatiaalisten työmuistitaitojen välisten yhteyksien selvittämiseen. Tutkimussarjan avulla pyrittiin selvittämään, ovatko visuaalis-spatiaaliset työmuistivalmiudet yhteydessä matemaattiseen suoriutumiseen sekä esi- että yläkouluiässä (osatutkimukset I, II, III, IV, V), onko yhteys spesifi rajoittuen tiettyjen visuaalis-spatiaalisten valmiuksien ja matemaattisen suoriutumisen välille vai onko se yleinen koskien matemaattisia taitoja ja koko visuaalis-spatiaalista työmuistia (osatutkimukset I, II, III, IV, V) tai työmuistia laajemmin (osatutkimukset II, III) sekä onko yhteys työmuistispesifi vai selitettävissä älykkyyden kaltaisella yleisellä päättelykapasiteetilla (osatutkimukset I, II, IV). Tutkimussarjan tulokset osoittavat, että kyky säilyttää ja käsitellä hetkellisesti visuaalis-spatiaalista informaatiota on yhteydessä matemaattiseen suoriutumiseen eikä yhteyttä voida selittää yksinomaan joustavalla älykkyydellä. Suoriutuminen visuaalis-spatiaalista työmuistia mittaavissa tehtävissä on yhteydessä sekä alle kouluikäisten esimatemaattisten taitojen hallintaan että peruskoulun yhdeksäsluokkalaisten matematiikan taitoihin. Matemaattisilta taidoiltaan heikkojen lasten ja nuorten visuaalis-spatiaalisten työmuistiresurssien heikkoudet vaikuttavat kuitenkin olevan sangen spesifejä rajoittuen tietyntyyppisissä muistitehtävissä vaadittaviin valmiuksiin; kaikissa visuaalis-spatiaalisen työmuistin valmiuksia mittaavissa tehtävissä suoriutuminen ei ole yhteydessä matemaattisiin taitoihin. Työmuistivalmiuksissa ilmenevät erot sekä alle kouluikäisten että kouluikäisten matemaattisilta taidoiltaan heikkojen ja normaalisuoriutujien välillä näyttävät olevan kuitenkin jossain määrin yhteydessä kielellisiin taitoihin viitaten vaikeuksien tietynlaiseen kasautumiseen; niillä matemaattisesti heikoilla, joilla on myös kielellisiä vaikeuksia, on keskimäärin laajemmat työmuistiheikkoudet. Osalla matematiikassa heikosti suoriutuvista on näin ollen selvästi keskimääräistä heikommat visuaalis-spatiaaliset työmuistivalmiudet, ja tämä heikkous saattaa olla yksi mahdollinen syy tai vaikeuksia lisäävä tekijä heikon matemaattisen suoriutumisen taustalla. Visuaalis-spatiaalisen työmuistin heikkous merkitsee konkreettisesti vähemmän mentaalista prosessointitilaa, joka rajoittaa oppimista ja suoritustilanteita. Tiedonkäsittelyvalmiuksien heikkous liittyy nimenomaan oppimisnopeuteen, ei asioiden opittavuuteen sinänsä. Mikäli oppimisympäristö ottaa huomioon valmiuksien rajallisuuden, työmuistiheikkoudet eivät todennäköisesti estä asioiden oppimista sinänsä. Avainsanat: Työmuisti, visuaalis-spatiaalinen työmuisti, matemaattiset taidot, lukukäsite, matematiikan oppimisvaikeudet

非言语学习不良青少年空间关系推理及其影响因素研究

It has reported that individuals with nonverbal learning disabilities (NLD) have deficits in visual-spatial organization and strengths in rote language abilities. At present, there are few studies on higher order cognitive abilities of adolescents with NLD, such as the reasoning about spatial relations. The study sampled three groups: a normal group (a control group, C), a nonverbal learning disabilities group (NLD), and a verbal learning disabilities group (VLD). The aim of this study was to examine spatial and nonspatial relation reasoning abilities in adolescents with NLD under figure and word conditions, and assessed the relative involvement of different working memory components in four types of reasoning tasks: reasoning about figure-spatial, figure-nonspatial, verbal-spatial, and verbal-nonspatial relations. Using the double-tasks methodology, visual, spatial, central-executive, and phonological loads were realized. We tried to find how working memory components impact on adolescents with NLD spatial and nonspatial reasoning. The main results of present research are as follows. (1) The NLD group didn’t differ from normal group on reasoning about figure-nonspatial relations. The NLD group scored lower than the C group in spatial problems. So, adolescents with NLD showed a dissociation between spatial and non-spatial relation reasoning. They scored higher in non-spatial problems than in spatial ones. Adolescents with VLD developed well in reasoning about figure-nonspatial relations, but showed deficits in other three tasks. (2) For each reasoning task, the difficult of four types of reasoning problem had different changing trend. For figure and verbal spatial problems, mental model approach can interpret performance of the four problems well. For verbal nonspatial problems, a logical rule approach can interpret performance of the four problems well. (3) Adolescents with NLD did not differ from adolescents with VLD and normal adolescents in phonological, central-executive, and visual dual tasks. But the NLD group had lower performance than the other two groups in spatial dual task. The results showed a dissociation between visual and spatial working memory in NLD group. The VLD group only experienced deficits in central-executive subsystem. (4) The studies found that spatial reasoning mainly loaded spatial working memory, whist the involvement of spatial resources in nonspatial reasoning was little. Visual working memory mainly involved in reasoning about spatial and figure-nonspatial relations, especially in figure-nonspatial problems, and had few impacts on verbal-nonspatial reasoning. Central executive system was involved in all reasoning tasks. The role of phonological loop in the reasoning tasks required further explored. (5) According to the findings, we concluded that the deficits in spatial working memory resulted in poor spatial reasoning abilities for teenagers with NLD, whist because of the limited central executive capability, teenagers with VLD showed poor reasoning abilities. (6) The three groups can used multiple strategies during the reasoning process. They didn’t differ from each other in reasoning strategies. They all used mental model strategy to solve figure and verbal spatial problems, and used logic rule strategy to solve verbal nonspatial problems.

空间及言语工作记忆任务的情绪效应：来自ERP/ fMRI的证据

In the present study, based on processing efficiency theory, we used the event-related potentials (ERP) and functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI) techniques to explore the underlying neutral mechanism of influences of negative emotion on three subsystems of working memory, phonological loop、 visuospatial sketh pad and the central executive. The modified DSMT (delayed matching-to-sample task) and n-back tasks were adopted and IAPS (International Affective Picture System) pictures were employed to induce the expected emotional state of subjects. The main results and conclusions obtained in the series of experiments are as the following: 1. In DSM tasks, we found P200 and P300 were reduced by negative emotion in both spatial and verbal tasks, however the increased negative slow wave were only observed in spatial tasks, not in verbal tasks. 2. In n-back tasks, the updating function of WM associated P300 was affected by negative emotion only in spatial tasks, not in verbal tasks. Current density analysis revealed strong current density in the fronto-parietal cortex only in the spatial tasks as well. 3. We adopted fMRI-block design and ROIs analysis, and found significant emotion and task effects in spatial WM-associated right superior parietal cortex; only emotion effect in verbal WM-associated Broca’s area; the interaction effect in attention-associated medial prefrontal area and bilateral inferior parietal cortex. These results implied the negative emotion mainly disturbed the spatial WM-related areas, and the attention control system play a key role in the interaction of spatial WM and negative emotion. 4. to further examine the effects of positive、negative and neutral emotion on tasks with different cognitive loads, the selective effect of emotion on the ERP components of spatial WM was only found in 2-back tasks, not in visual searching tasks. So, firstly the positive emotion as well as negative emotion selectively disturbed on spatial WM in light of the attention resource competition mechanism. Secondly, the selective influences based on the different WM systems, not the properties of spatial and verbal information. At last, the manner of the interaction of emotion and cognition is correlated with the cognitive load.

El papel de la memoria de trabajo en el cálculo mental un cuarto de siglo después de Hitch = The role of working memory in mental arithmetic a quarter of century after Hitch

Desde que Hitch (1978) publicó el primer estudio sobre el rol de la memoria de trabajo en el cálculo han ido aumentando las investigaciones en este campo. Muchos trabajos han estudiado un único subsistema, pero nuestro objetivo es identificar qué subsistema de la memoria de trabajo (bucle fonológico, agenda viso-espacial o ejecutivo central) está más implicado en el cálculo mental. Para ello hemos realizado un estudio correlacional en el que hemos administrado dos pruebas aritméticas y nueve pruebas de la “Bateria de Test de Memòria de Treball” de Pickering, Baqués y Gathercole (1999) a una muestra de 94 niños españoles de 7-8 años. Nuestros resultados indican que el bucle fonológico y sobretodo el ejecutivo central inciden de forma estadísticamente significativa en el rendimiento aritmético