Elämänlaadun kokeminen ja alkoholinkäyttö varhais- ja keskivanhuudessa

Tämän tutkielman aiheena oli ikääntyneiden alkoholinkäyttö ja sen yhteys koettuun elämänlaatuun. Tutkimuksen aineistona oli kaksi Ikihyvä Päijät-Häme –hankkeen terveyskyselyaineistoa vuosilta 2002 ja 2008. Tutkimukseen osallistui 2814 päijäthämäläistä henkilöä vuonna 2002 ja 2064 henkilöä vuonna 2008. Vastaajat olivat syntyneet vuosien 1926 ja 1950 välillä. Tutkielman tarkoituksena oli selvittää, kuinka paljon ikääntyneet käyttävät alkoholia, millaisia eroja sukupuolten ja ikäryhmien välillä on sekä miten alkoholinkäyttötottumukset muuttuvat iän karttuessa. Tämän lisäksi tutkielman tarkoituksena oli tarkastella ikääntyneiden elämänlaadun kokemista elämän eri osa-alueilla sekä alkoholinkäytön yhteyttä siihen. Tutkielmassa käytettiin pääsääntöisesti kvantitatiivisia menetelmiä. Määrällistä kyselyaineistoa analysoitiin ristiintaulukoinnin, khin neliö –testin, keskiarvotestien, pääkomponenttianalyysin sekä logistisen regressioanalyysin keinoin. Lisäksi kyselyllä kerättyjä avoimia vastauksia analysoitiin teemoittelemalla. Ensimmäisenä seurantavuonna joka viides vastaaja oli täysin raitis ja noin 8 prosenttia kuului suurkuluttajiin. Alkoholinkäyttö oli runsaampaa miehillä kuin naisilla, samaten nuoremmat vertailuryhmät joivat enemmän kuin vanhemmat. Tulokset olivat samankaltaiset myös vuonna 2008. Täysin raittiiden osuus lisääntyi hieman seurannan aikana mutta runsaimmin kuluttavien osuus säilyi samana. Suuri osa ikääntyvistä nautti ainakin silloin tällöin enemmän alkoholia kuin riskirajojen perusteella olisi suositeltavaa. Tärkeimpiä asioita ikääntyneiden elämänlaadun kannalta olivat hyvä terveys ja toimintakyky sekä hyvät läheiset ihmissuhteet. Myös hyvä asuinympäristö, mielekäs vapaa-aika sekä turvattu toimeentulo olivat tärkeitä. Runsas alkoholinkäyttö oli yhteydessä heikompaan koettuun elämänlaatuun sekä ihmissuhteissa, terveydentilassa, asumisessa että varallisuudessa. Sen sijaan muilla kuin alkoholin suurkuluttajilla vastaavia eroja ei havaittu. Silloin tällöin esiintyvä alkoholinkäyttö oli yhteydessä myönteisesti koettuun vapaa-aikaan. Ikääntyneiden kanssa työskentelevien tulisi osata tunnistaa ja ottaa puheeksi liiallinen alkoholinkäyttö. Oikea-aikainen palveluiden tarjoaminen ehkäisisi ongelmien kasautumista ja iäkkään henkilön syrjäytymistä. Tämän saavuttamiseksi tarvitaan koulutusta työntekijöille sekä moniammatillista yhteistyötä.

Cloningerin psykobiologisen teorian temperamenttipiirteiden yhteys alkoholinkäyttöön nuorilla aikuisilla

The temperamental traits of Cloninger’s personality theory (novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence and persistence) reflect independent systems of central nervous system deciding responses toward new, rewarding and aversive stimuli. Thus, certain temperamental traits and their combinations may predispose to heavy drinking and alcohol dependence. Hence, the aim of the present study was to investigate associations between temperamental traits and the amount of alcohol consumption, frequency of heavy drinking and the maximum number of drinks per occasion. In this study, we investigated also whether these associations are only confounded by between-family differences in genetic and environmental factors. Furthermore the associations between temperamental trait combinations that reflect Cloninger's typology of alcoholism and alcohol use were studied. The subjects (n=401) in the current study were a group of FinnTwin16 study participators, Finnish twins born in 1974-79. Temperament was measured with TCI-R (Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised) a self-report form. The amount of alcohol consumption was asked by Semi-structured interview (Semi-Structured Assessment of Genetics of Alcoholism = SSAGA). The frequency of heavy drinking and maximum number of drinks per occasion were asked by mail form. In accordance with previous studies, novelty seeking had a positive relationship with the amount of alcohol consumption, frequency of heavy drinking and the maximum number of drinks per occasion in both genders. In this study, the association was proven independent of between-family differences in genetic and environmental factors that are associated to both novelty seeking and alcohol use. Surprisingly, reward dependence was negatively related to the maximum number of drinks per occasion in both genders. Persistence had a weak positive relationship with maximum number of drinks per occasion in men. The temperamental trait combinations that reflect Cloninger's typology of alcoholism did not differ from the other combinations in regard to alcohol use as hypothesized. The results confirm the previous finding about the relationship between novelty seeking and alcohol use. Support for Cloninger's typology of alcoholism in regard to combinations of temperamental trait was not achieved in this study.

Early-onset depressive disorders,related mental health disorders and substance use-A prospective : longitudinal study of Finnish twins born 1983-1987

Early-onset psychiatric illnesses effects scatter to academic achievements as well as functioning in familial and social environments. From a public health point of view, depressive disorders are the most significant mental health disorders that begin in adolescence. Using prospective and longitudinal design, this study aimed to increase the understanding of early-onset depressive disorders, related mental health disorders and developing substance use in a large population-derived sample of adolescent Finnish twins. The participants of this study, FinnTwin12, an ongoing longitudinal population-based study, came from Finnish families with twins born in 1983-87 (exhaustive of five birth cohorts, identified from Finland s Central Population Register). With follow-up ongoing at age 20-24, this thesis assessed adolescent mental health in the first three waves, starting from baseline age 11-12 to follow-ups at age 14 and 17½. Some 5600 twins participated in questionnaire assessments of a wide range of health related behaviors. Mental health was further assessed among an intensively studied subsample of 1852 adolescents, who completed also professionally administered interviews at age 14, which provided data for full DSM-IV/III-R (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Health disorders, 4th and 3rd editions) diagnoses. The participation rates of the study were 87-92%. The results of the study suggest, that the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD) may not capture youth with clinically significant early-onset depressive conditions outside clinical settings. Milder cases of depression, namely adolescents fulfilling the diagnostic criteria for minor depressive disorder, a qualitatively similar condition to MDD with fewer symptoms are also associated with marked suicidal thoughts, plans and attempts, recurrences and a high degree of comorbidity. Prospectively and longitudinally, early-onset depressive disorders were of substantial importance in the context of other mental health disorders and substance use behaviors: These data from a large population-derived sample established a substantial overlap between early-onset depressive disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescent females, both of them significantly predictive for development of substance use among girls. Only in females baseline DSM-IV ADHD symptoms were strong predictors of alcohol abuse and dependence and illicit drug use at age 14 and frequent alcohol use and illicit drug use at age 17.½ when conduct disorder and previous substance use were controlled for. Early-onset depressive disorders were also prospectively and longitudinally associated to daily smoking behavior, smokeless tobacco use, frequent alcohol use and illicit drug use and eating disorders. Analysis of discordant twins suggested that these predictive associations were independent of familial confounds, such as family income, structure and parental models. In sum, early-onset depressive disorders predict subsequent involvement of substance use and psychiatric morbidity. A heightened risk for substance use is substantial also among those depressed below categorical diagnosis of MDD. Whether early recognition and interventions among these young people hold potential for substance use prevention further in their lives has potential public health significance and calls for more research. Data from this population-derived sample with balanced representation of boys and girls, suggested that boys and girls with ADHD behaviors may differ from each other in their vulnerability to substance use and depressive disorders: the data suggest more adverse substance use outcome for girls that was not attenuated by conduct disorder or previous substance use. Further, the prospective associations of early-onset depressive disorders and future elevated levels of addictive substance use is not explained by familial factors supporting future substance use, which could have important implications for substance use prevention.

Predictors of disability retirement: From early intentions to retirement

The strong tendency of elderly employees to retire early and the simultaneous aging of the population have been major topics of policy and scientific debate. A key concern has been the financing of future pension schemes and possible labour shortage, especially in social and health services within the public sector. The aging of the population is inevitable, but efforts can be made to prevent or postpone early exit from the labour force, e.g., by identifying and intervening in the factors that contribute to the process of early retirement due to disability. The associations of intentions to retire early, poor mental health and different psychosocial factors with the process of disability retirement are still poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the associations of intentions to retire early, poor mental health, work and family related psychosocial factors and experiences of earlier life stages with the process of disability retirement. The data were derived from the Helsinki Health Study (HHS, N=8960) and the Health and Social Support Study (HeSSup, N=25 901). The Helsinki Health Study is an ongoing employee cohort study among middle-aged women and men. The Health and Social Support Study is an ongoing longitudinal study of a working-age sample representative of the Finnish population. The analyses were restricted to respondents 40 years of age or older. Age and gender adjusted prevalence and incidence rates were calculated. Associations were studied by using logistic, multinomial and Cox regression. Strong intentions to retire early were common among employees. Poor mental health, unfavourable working conditions and work-to-family conflicts were clearly associated with increased intentions to retire early. Strong intentions to retire early predicted disability retirement. Risk of disability retirement increased in a dose-response manner with increasing number of childhood adversities. Poor mental and somatic health, life dissatisfaction, heavy alcohol consumption, current smoking, obesity and low socioeconomic status were also predictors of disability retirement. The impact of poor mental health and adverse experiences from earlier life stages, work and family related psychosocial factors, e.g., work-family interface, the subjective experience of well-being and health related risk behaviours on the process of disability retirement should be recognised. Preventive measures against disability retirement should be launched before subjective experience of ill health, work disability and strong intentions to retire early emerge.

Living arrangements and health

In line with major demographic changes in other Northern European and North American countries and Australia, being nonmarried is becoming increasingly common in Finland, and the proportion of cohabiters and of persons living alone has grown in recent decades. Official marital status no longer reflects an individual s living arrangement, as single, divorced and widowed persons may live alone, with a partner, with children, with parents, with siblings, or with unrelated persons. Thus, more than official marital status, living arrangements may be a stronger discriminator of one s social bonds and health. The general purpose of this study was to deepen our current understanding of the magnitude, trends, and determinants of ill health by living arrangements in the Finnish working-age population. Distinct measures of different dimensions of poor health, as well as an array of associated factors, provided a comprehensive picture of health differences by living arrangements and helped to assess the role of other factors in the interpretation of these differences . Mortality analyses were based on Finnish census records at the end of 1995 linked with cause-of-death registers for 1996 2000. The data included all persons aged 30 and over. Morbidity analyses were based on two comparable cross-sectional studies conducted twenty years apart (the Mini-Finland Survey in 1978 80 and the Health 2000 Survey in 2000 01). Both surveys were based on nationally representative samples of Finns aged 30 and over, and benefited from high participation rates. With the exception of mortality analyses, this study focused on health differences among the working-age population (mortality in age groups 30-64 and 65 and over, self-rated health and mental health in the age group 30-64, and unhealthy alcohol use in the age group 30-54). Compared with all nonmarried groups, married men and women exhibited the best health in terms of mortality, self-rated health, mental health and unhealthy alcohol use. Cohabiters did not differ from married persons in terms of self-rated health or mental health, but did exhibit excess unhealthy alcohol use and high mortality, particularly from alcohol-related causes. Compared with the married, persons living alone or with someone other than a partner exhibited elevated mortality as well as excess poor mental health and unhealthy alcohol use. By all measures of health, men and women living alone tended to be in the worst position. Over the past twenty years, SRH had improved least among single men and women and widowed women, and most among cohabiting women. The association between living arrangements and health has many possible explanations. The health-related selection theory suggests that healthy people are more likely to enter and maintain a marriage or a consensual union than those who are unhealthy (direct selection) or that a variety of health-damaging behavioural and social factors increase the likelihood of ill health and the probability of remaining without a partner or becoming separated from one s partner (indirect selection). According to the social causation theory, marriage or cohabitation has a health-promoting effect, whereas living alone or with others than a partner has a detrimental effect on health. In this study, the role of other factors that are mainly assumed to reflect selection, appeared to be rather modest. Social support, which reflects social causation, contributed only modestly to differences in unhealthy alcohol use by living arrangements, but had a larger effect on differences in poor mental health. Socioeconomic factors and health-related behaviour, which reflect both selection and causation, appeared to play a more important role in the excess poor health of cohabiters and of persons living alone or with someone other than a partner, than of married persons. Living arrangements were strongly connected to various dimensions of ill health. In particular, alcohol consumption appeared to be of great importance in the association between living arrangements and health. To the extent that the proportion of nonmarried persons continues to grow and their health does not improve at the same rate as that of married persons, the challenges that currently nonmarried persons pose to public health will likely increase.

The social patterning of health, smoking and drinking in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland in 1994-2004

The Baltic countries share public health problems typical of most Eastern European transition economies: morbidity and mortality from non-communicable diseases is higher than in Western European countries. This situation has many similarities compared to a neighbouring country, Finland during the late 1960s. There are reasons to expect that health disadvantage may be increasing among the less advantaged population groups in the Baltic countries. The evidence on social differences in health in the Baltic countries is, however, scattered to studies using different methodologies making comparisons difficult. This study aims to bridge the evidence gap by providing comparable standardized cross-sectional and time trend analyses to the social patterning of variation in health and two key health behaviours i.e. smoking and drinking in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland in 1994-2004 representing Eastern European transition countries and a stable Western European country. The data consisted of similar cross-sectional postal surveys conducted in 1994, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002 and 2004 on adult populations (aged 20 64 years) in Estonia (n=9049), Latvia (n=7685), Lithuania (n=11634) and Finland (n=18821) in connection with the Finbalt Health Monitor project. The main statistical method was logistic regression analysis. Perceived health was found to be worse among both men and women in the Baltic countries than in Finland. Poor health was associated with older age and lower education in all countries studied. Urbanization and marital status were not consistently related to health. The existing educational inequalities in health remained generally stable over time from 1994 to 2004. In the Baltic countries, however, improvement in perceived health was mainly found among the better educated men and women. Daily smoking was associated with young age, lower education and psychological distress in all countries. Among women smoking was also associated with urbanisation in all countries except Estonia. Among Lithuanian women, the educational gradient in smoking was weakest, and the overall prevalence of smoking increased over time. Drinking was generally associated with young age among men and women, and with education among women. Better educated women were more often frequent drinkers and less educated binge drinkers. The exception was that in Latvian men and women both frequent drinking and binge drinking were associated with low education. In conclusion, the Baltic countries are likely to resemble Western European countries rather than other transition societies. While health inequalities did not markedly change, substantial inequalities do remain, and there were indications of favourable developments mainly among the better educated. Pressures towards increasing health inequalities may therefore be visible in the future, which would be in accordance with the results on smoking and drinking in this study.

The Impact of Lifestyle and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Midlife on the Health-Related Quality of Life among Old Men

Prevention of cardiovascular diseases is known to postpone death, but in an aging society it is important to ensure that those who live longer are neither disabled nor suffering an inferior quality of life. It is essential both from the point of view of the aging individual as well as that of society that any individual should enjoy a good physical, mental and social quality of life during these additional years. The studies presented in this thesis investigated the impact of modifiable risk factors, all of which affect cardiovascular health in the long term, on mortality and health-related quality of life (HRQoL). The data is based on the all male cohort of the Helsinki Businessmen Study. This cohort, originally of 3.490 men born between 1919 and 1934 has been followed since the 1960s. The socioeconomic status of the participants is similar, since all the men were working in leading positions. Extensive baseline examinations were conducted among 2.375 of the men in 1974 when their mean age was 48 and at this time the health, medication and cardiovascular risk factors of the participants were observed. In 2000, at the mean age of 73, the HRQoL of the survivors of the original cohort was examined using the RAND-36 mailed questionnaire (n=1.864). RAND-36, along with the equivalent SF-36, is the world s most widely used means of assessing generic health. The response rate was generally over 90%. Mortality was retrieved from national registers in 2000 and 2002. For the six substudies of this thesis, the impact of four different modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (weight gain, cholesterol, alcohol and smoking) on the HRQoL in old age was studied both independently and in combination. The follow-up time for these studies varies from 26 up to 39 years. Mortality is reported separately or included in the RAND-36 scores for HRQoL. Elevated levels of all the risk factors examined among the participants in midlife led to a diminished life expectancy. Among survivors, lower weight gain in midlife was associated with better HRQoL, both physically and mentally. Higher levels of serum cholesterol in middle age indicated both an earlier mortality and a decline in the physical component of HRQoL in a dose-response manner during the 39-year follow-up. Mortality was significantly higher in the highest baseline category of reported mean alcohol consumption (≥ 5 drinks/day), but fairly comparable in abstainers and moderate drinkers during the 29-year follow-up. When HRQoL in old age was accounted for mortality, the men with the highest alcohol consumption in midlife clearly had poorer physical and mental health in old age, but the HRQoL of abstainers and those who drank alcohol in moderation were comparatively similar. The amount of cigarette smoking in midlife was shown to have had a dose-response effect on both mortality and HRQoL in old age during the 26 year follow-up. The men smoking over 20 cigarettes daily in middle age lost about 10 years of their life-expectancy. Meanwhile, the physical functioning of surviving heavy smokers in old age was similar to men 10 years older in the general population. The impact of clustered cardiovascular risk factors was examined by comparing two subcohorts of men who were healthy in 1974, but with different baseline risk factor status. The men with low risk had a 50 % lower mortality during the 29-years follow-up. Their RAND-36 scores for the physical quality of life in old age were significantly better, and the 2002 questionnaire examining psychological well-being indicated also significantly better mental health among the low-risk group. The results indicate that different risk factor levels in midlife have a meaningful impact on life-expectancy and the quality of these extra years. Leading a healthy lifestyle improves both survival and the quality of life.

Interaction of alcohol and smoking in the pathogenesis of upper digestive tract cancers - possible chemoprevention with cysteine

Background: Alcohol consumption and smoking are the main causes of upper digestive tract cancers. These risk factors account for over 75% of all cases in developed countries. Epidemiological studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco interact in a multiplicative way to the cancer risk, but the pathogenetic mechanism behind this is poorly understood. Strong experimental and human genetic linkage data suggest that acetaldehyde is one of the major factors behind the carcinogenic effect. In the digestive tract, acetaldehyde is mainly formed by microbial metabolism of ethanol. Acetaldehyde is also a major constituent of tobacco smoke. Thus, acetaldehyde from both of these sources may have an interacting carcinogenic effect in the human upper digestive tract. Aims: The first aim of this thesis was to investigate acetaldehyde production and exposure in the human mouth resulting from alcohol ingestion and tobacco smoking in vivo. Secondly, specific L-cysteine products were prepared to examine their efficacy in the binding of salivary acetaldehyde in order to reduce the exposure of the upper digestive tract to acetaldehyde. Methods: Acetaldehyde levels in saliva were measured from human volunteers during alcohol metabolism, during tobacco smoking and during the combined use of alcohol and tobacco. The ability of L-cysteine to eliminate acetaldehyde during alcohol metabolism and tobacco smoking was also investigated with specifically developed tablets. Also the acetaldehyde production of Escherichia coli - an important member of the human microbiota - was measured in different conditions prevailing in the digestive tract. Results and conclusions: These studies established that smokers have significantly increased acetaldehyde exposure during ethanol consumption even when not actively smoking. Acetaldehyde exposure was dramatically further increased during active tobacco smoking. Thus, the elevated aerodigestive tract cancer risk observed in smokers and drinkers may be the result of the increased acetaldehyde exposure. Acetaldehyde produced in the oral cavity during ethanol challenge was significantly decreased by a buccal L-cysteine -releasing tablet. Also smoking-derived acetaldehyde could be totally removed by using a tablet containing L-cysteine. In conclusion, this thesis confirms the essential role of acetaldehyde in the pathogenesis of alcohol- and smoking-induced cancers. This thesis presents a novel experimental approach to decrease the local acetaldehyde exposure of the upper digestive tract with L-cysteine, with the eventual goal of reducting the prevalence of upper digestive tract cancers.

Samanaikaisen alkoholiriippuvuuden ja vakavan masennuksen hoito memantiinilla ja essitalopraamilla - tulos ja ennustetekijät

Samanaikainen alkoholiriippuvuus ja vakava masennustila on haasteellista sekä lääketieteelliselle hoidolle että tutkimukselle. Tämä oireyhtymä on yksi yleisimmistä psykiatrisista häiriöistä niin Yhdysvalloissa kuin Suomessakin. Potilaiden ja heidän omaistensa inhimillisen kärsimyksen lisäksi myös kokonaistaloudelliset terveydenhoidolliset kustannukset ovat suuret tämän oireyhtymän hoidossa: niiden arvioidaan olevan yli neljäkymmentä prosenttia korkeammat kuin pelkän depression kohdalla. Tässä tutkimuksessa pyrittiin löytämään uusia hoidollisia vaihtoehtoja alkoholiriippuvuudesta ja vakavasta masennuksesta yhtäaikaisesti kärsivien potilaiden hoidossa. Tutkimukseen osallistui 80 potilasta Helsingin kaupungin kolmelta A-klinikalta. Kyseessä oli kaksoissokko, randomisoitu, kahden eri tavalla vaikuttavan lääkkeen, essitalopraamin (selektiivinen serotoniinin takaisinoton estäjä) ja memantiinin (glutamaatin NMDA reseptorin ei-kilpaileva estäjä) vertaileva tutkimus. Potilaiden oireiden kulkua seurattiin 26 viikkoa depressioon, ahdistuneisuuteen, kogniitioihin, elämänlaatuun ja alkoholin käyttöön liittyvillä mittareilla. Tämän jälkeen tarkasteltiin hoitovastetta alkutilanne- ja taustamuuttujien valossa. Pyrkimyksenä oli löytää joitakin ennustekijöitä, joiden pohjalta kliinikko voisi tehdä hoitoratkaisunsa näiden potilaiden hoidossa. Molemmat lääkkeet vähensivät merkittävästi sekä masennusta että ahdistuneisuutta, eikä essitalopraami- ja memantiiniryhmien välillä ollut tilastollisesti merkitsevää eroa. Kognitiiviset toiminnot olivat lähtövaiheessa normatiivisella tasolla. Elämän laatu parani molemmissa hoitoryhmissä. Alkoholimittareilla AUDIT (alkoholihäiriöiden tunnistusmittari) ja OCDS (pakkomielteisen ja pakkotoimintoisen alkoholinkäytön mittari) paranivat molemmissa hoitoryhmissä. Varhainen ensimmäisen vakavan masennuksen episodin alku näytti ennakoivan huonoa vastetta essitalopraamille, mutta ei memantiinille, mitattuna Montgomery-Åsberg depression rating scale -asteikolla. Toisaalta myöhäinen ensimmäisen masennuksen episodi näytti ennakoivan hyvää hoitovastetta essitalopraamille. Niinpä ensimmäisen masennuksen alkamisikä saattaisi olla käyttökelpoinen ennustekijä näille lääkkeille. Varhainen humalahakuisen juomisen alkamisikä näytti ennustavan huonoa hoitovastetta molemmille lääkkeille, erityisesti essitalopraamille, mitattuna AUDIT-mittarilla. Aktiivinen alkoholinkäyttö tutkimuksen alkaessa ennakoi tutkimuksen keskeyttämistä. HTTLPR-geenin L-alleeli näytti ennustavan parempaa hoitovastetta essitalopraamille masennukseen kuin S-alleeli.

Health-Related Quality of Life and Mental Disorders in Finland

Quality of life (QoL) and Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) are becoming one of the key outcomes of health care due to increased respect for the subjective valuations and well-being of patients and an increasing part of the ageing population living with chronic, non-fatal conditions. Preference-based HRQoL measures enable estimation of health utility, which can be useful for rational rationing, evidence-based medicine and health policy. This study aimed to compare the individual severity and public health burden of major chronic conditions in Finland, including and focusing on reliably diagnosed psychiatric conditions. The study is based on the Health 2000 survey, a representative general population survey of 8028 Finns aged 30 and over. Depressive, anxiety and alcohol use disorders were diagnosed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (M-CIDI). HRQoL was measured with the 15D and the EQ-5D, with 83% response rate. This study found that people with psychiatric disorders had the lowest 15D HRQoL scores at all ages, in comparison to other main groups of chronic conditions. Considering 29 individual conditions, three of the four most severe (on 15D) were psychiatric disorders; the most severe was Parkinson s disease. Of the psychiatric disorders, chronic conditions that have sometimes been considered relatively mild - dysthymia, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder and social phobia - were found to be the most severe. This was explained both by the severity of the impact of these disorders on mental health domains of HRQoL, and also by the fact that decreases were widespread on most dimensions of HRQoL. Considering the public health burden of conditions, musculoskeletal disorders were associated with the largest burden, followed by psychiatric disorders. Psychiatric disorders were associated with the largest burden at younger ages. Of individual conditions, the largest burden found was for depressive disorders, followed by urinary incontinence and arthrosis of the hip and knee. The public health burden increased greatly with age, so the ageing of the Finnish population will mean that the disease burden caused by chronic conditions will increase by a quarter up to year 2040, if morbidity patterns do not change. Investigating alcohol consumption and HRQoL revealed that although abstainers had poorer HRQoL than moderate drinkers, this was mainly due to many abstainers being former drinkers and having the poorest HRQoL. Moderate drinkers did not have significantly better HRQoL than abstainers who were not former drinkers. Psychiatric disorders are associated with a large part of the non-fatal disease burden in Finland. In particular anxiety disorders appear to be more severe and have a larger public health burden than previously thought.

Not in all Walks of Life? : Social Differences in Suicide Mortality

In Finland, the suicide mortality trend has been decreasing during the last decade and a half, yet suicide was the fourth most common cause of death among both Finnish men and women aged 15 64 years in 2006. However, suicide does not occur equally among population sub-groups. Two notable social factors that position people at different risk of suicide are socioeconomic and employment status: those with low education, employed in manual occupations, having low income and those who are unemployed have been found to have an elevated suicide risk. The purpose of this study was to provide a systematic analysis of these social differences in suicide mortality in Finland. Besides studying socioeconomic trends and differences in suicide according to age and sex, different indicators for socioeconomic status were used simultaneously, taking account of their pathways and mutual associations while also paying attention to confounding and mediatory effects of living arrangements and employment status. Register data obtained from Statistics Finland were used in this study. In some analyses suicides were divided into two groups according to contributory causes of death: the first group consisted of suicide deaths that had alcohol intoxication as one of the contributory causes, and the other group is comprised of all other suicide deaths. Methods included Poisson and Cox regression models. Despite the decrease in suicide mortality trend, social differences still exist. Low occupation-based social class proved to be an important determinant of suicide risk among both men and women, but the strong independent effect of education on alcohol-associated suicide indicates that the roots of these differences are probably established in early adulthood when educational qualifications are obtained and health-behavioural patterns set. High relative suicide mortality among the unemployed during times of economic boom suggests that selective processes may be responsible for some of the employment status differences in suicide. However, long-term unemployment seems to have causal effects on suicide, which, especially among men, partly stem from low income. In conclusion, the results in this study suggest that education, occupation-based social class and employment status have causal effects on suicide risk, but to some extent selection into low education and unemployment are also involved in the explanations for excess suicide mortality among the socially deprived. It is also conceivable that alcohol use is to some extent behind social differences in suicide. In addition to those with low education, manual workers and the unemployed, young people, whose health-related behaviour is still to be adopted, would most probably benefit from suicide prevention programmes.

Pathways to health : Determinants of health, health behaviour and health inequalities in early adulthood

There is increasing evidence that the origins of poor adult health and health inequalities can be traced back to circumstances preceding current socioeconomic position and living conditions. The life-course approach to examining the determinants of health has emphasised that exposure to adverse social and economic circumstances in earlier life or concurrent adverse circumstances due to unfavourable living conditions in earlier life may lead to poor health, health-damaging behaviour, disease or even premature death in adulthood. There is, however, still a lack of knowledge about the contribution of social and economic circumstances in childhood and youth to adult health and health inequalities, and even less is known about how environmental and behavioural factors in adulthood mediate the effects of earlier adverse experiences. The main purpose of this study was to deepen our understanding of the development of poor health, health-damaging behaviours and health inequalities during the life-course. Its aim was to find out which factors in earlier and current circumstances determine health, the most detrimental indicators of health behaviour (smoking, heavy drinking and obesity as a proxy for the balance between nutrition and exercise), and educational health differences in young adults in Finland. Following the ideas of the social pathway theory, it was assumed that childhood environment affects adult health and its proximal determinants via different pathways, including educational, work and family careers. Early adulthood was studied as a significant phase of life when many behavioural patterns and living conditions relevant to health are established. In addition, socioeconomic health inequalities seem to emerge rapidly when moving into adulthood; they are very small or non-existent in childhood and adolescence, but very marked by early middle age. The data of this study were collected in 2000 2001 as part of the Health 2000 Survey (N = 9,922), a cross-sectional and nationally representative health interview and examination survey. The main subset of data used in this thesis was the one comprising the age group 18 29 years (N = 1,894), which included information collected by standardised structured computer-aided interviews and self-administered questionnaires. The survey had a very high participation rate at almost 90% for the core questions. According to the results of this study, childhood circumstances predict the health of young adults. Almost all the childhood adversities studied were found to be associated with poor self-rated health and psychological distress in early adulthood, although fewer associations were found with the somatic morbidity typical of young adults. These effects seemed to be more or less independent of the young adult s own education. Childhood circumstances also had a strong effect on smoking and heavy drinking, although current circumstances and education in particular, played a role in mediating this effect. Parental smoking and alcohol abuse had an influence on the corresponding behaviours of offspring. Childhood circumstances had a role in the development of obesity and, to a lesser extent, overweight, particularly in women. The findings support the notion that parental education has a strong effect on early adult obesity, even independently of the young adult s own educational level. There were marked educational differences in self-rated health in early adulthood: those in the lowest educational category were most likely to have average or poorer health. Childhood social circumstances seemed to explain a substantial part of these educational differences. In addition, daily smoking and heavy drinking contributed substantially to educational health differences. However, the contribution of childhood circumstances was largely shared with health behaviours adopted by early adulthood. Employment also shared the effects of childhood circumstances on educational health differences. The results indicate that childhood circumstances are important in determining health, health behaviour and health inequalities in early adulthood. Early recognition of childhood adversities followed by relevant support measures may play an important role in preventing the unfortunate pathways leading to the development of poor health, health-damaging behaviour and health inequalities. It is crucially important to recognise the needs of children living in adverse circumstances as well as children of substance abusing parents. In addition, single-parent families would benefit from support. Differences in health and health behaviours between different sub-groups of the population mean that we can expect to see ever greater health differences when today s generation of young adults grows older. This presents a formidable challenge to national health and social policy as well as health promotion. Young adults with no more than primary level education are at greatest risk of poor health. Preventive policies should emphasise the role of low educational level as a key determinant of health-damaging behaviours and poor health. Keywords: health, health behaviour, health inequalities, life-course, socioeconomic position, education, childhood circumstances, self-rated health, psychological distress, somatic morbidity, smoking, heavy drinking, BMI, early adulthood

Pilkahduksia Pilkkeestä – tutkimus ikääntyvien päihteidenkäyttäjien päivätoimintaryhmistä

Tutkimuskohteenani ovat Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen Pilke-projektin päivätoimintaryhmät ikääntyville päihteidenkäyttäjille. Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen Pilke-projekti on osa Sininauhaliiton Liika on aina liikaa – ikääntyminen ja alkoholi -hanketta ja sitä rahoittaa Raha-automaattiyhdistys. Idea tutkimuksen tekoon nousi Liika on aina liikaa – ikääntyminen ja alkoholi -hankkeen tutkimustarpeiden myötä, tarpeesta saada kuuluviin yhden osahankkeen asiakkaiden ääni ja nostaa esiin heidän näkemyksensä ja kokemuksensa ryhmätoiminnasta, johon he osallistuvat, ja jota ei ole tutkittu vielä. Yhtenä perusteluna tutkimuksen tekemiselle on myös se, että aihe on uusi ja sitä ei ole juurikaan tutkittu. Tutkimusotteeni on etnografinen. Olen havainnoinut kolmea, Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen eri tiloissa kokoontuvaa Pilke-ryhmää reilun puolen vuoden ajan. Tämän lisäksi olen haastatellut ryhmien jäseniä ryhmähaastattelun keinoin. Tutkimusnäkökulmaani olen laajentanut koskemaan myös ohjaajien työtä, koska pidän heidän työnsä näkyväksi tekemistä tärkeänä. Analyysissä yhdistän etnografisen aineiston temaattista luentaa ja diskurssianalyyttisempää otetta kiinnittäen huomiota puheella tuotettuihin ja puheen tuottamiin merkityksiin, vuorovaikutukseen keskustelijoiden välillä sekä identiteetin rakentumiseen puheessa. Tutkimuksessa pyrin kuvaamaan ja ymmärtämään ikääntyvien päihteidenkäyttäjien ryhmätoimintaa ja sen merkitystä ikääntyville sekä sitä, miten ryhmään löydytään. Ryhmähaastatteluissa kiinnostukseni kohdistuu etenkin siihen, miten ikääntyvät kokevat Pilke-ryhmätoiminnan ja millaisia määrittelyjä he itsestään ja suhteestaan ryhmätoimintaan tai alkoholiin antavat. Tuon esiin myös sitä, millaisiin haasteisiin tutkija voi törmätä tutkiessa ikääntyneitä päihteidenkäyttäjiä. Pohdin esimerkiksi afaattisesti puhuvien ihmisten haastattelemista ryhmähaastattelun keinoin sekä miksi havainnointi on mielestäni hyvä tapa tutkia ikääntyneitä päihteidenkäyttäjiä. Tulo Pilkkeeseen alkaa etsivästä työstä. Verkostojen yhteistyöllä ryhmiin päätyvät sellaiset ikääntyvät, joista suurin osa ei olisi kotonaan aktiivisten eläkeläisten harrastuspiireissä, koska niissä ei ole totuttu käymään ja sosiaalinen elämä on rajoittunut esimerkiksi lähiöravintolaan. Puhutaan haastavanakin pidetystä vähemmistöstä ikääntyneiden joukossa. Alkoholia on käytetty jo pitkään, tai sitä on ryhdytty käyttämään runsaasti vasta iäkkäänä. Pilkkeeseen löytyvistä ikääntyvistä varsin suuri osa kuitenkin kiinnittyy ryhmään. Tähän syynä ovat uusien ihmiskontaktien saamisen tärkeys, ohjaajien persoona, keskustelumahdollisuus ja mahdollisuus tehdä käsillä jotain, mitä kenties ei koskaan tulisi kotona tehtyä. Kynnys osallistumiseen on matala ja vaatimuksia elämäntapoja muuttamiselle ei ole. Pilkkeen merkitys siihen osallistuville on tulosteni mukaan suuri. Pilke katkaisee usein yksinäiseksikin koettua arkea ja muut ryhmässä käyvät koetaan tärkeiksi. Pilke tarjoaa mahdollisuuden jakaa ajatuksiaan ja omaa elämäntarinaansa. Huumori kantaa Pilke-tapaamisia. Myös käsillä tekeminen koetaan tärkeäksi ja sen huomaaminen, että tekemisen taito on tallella, voimaannuttaa. Pilke luo uudenlaista järjestystä elämään ja sen myötä myös alkoholinkäyttö osalla vähenee. Etenkin pitkäaikaisille jäsenille Pilkkeen voi sanoa muodostuvan kiinnipitäväksi ympäristöksi, joka on tutkimukseni keskeinen, alun perin D.W. Winnicottin käyttämä käsite.

Pilkahduksia Pilkkeestä : tutkimus ikääntyvien päihteidenkäyttäjien päivätoimintaryhmistä

Tutkimuskohteenani ovat Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen Pilke-projektin päivätoimintaryhmät ikääntyville päihteidenkäyttäjille. Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen Pilke-projekti on osa Sininauhaliiton Liika on aina liikaa – ikääntyminen ja alkoholi -hanketta ja sitä rahoittaa Raha-automaattiyhdistys. Idea tutkimuksen tekoon nousi Liika on aina liikaa – ikääntyminen ja alkoholi -hankkeen tutkimustarpeiden myötä, tarpeesta saada kuuluviin yhden osahankkeen asiakkaiden ääni ja nostaa esiin heidän näkemyksensä ja kokemuksensa ryhmätoiminnasta, johon he osallistuvat, ja jota ei ole tutkittu vielä. Yhtenä perusteluna tutkimuksen tekemiselle on myös se, että aihe on uusi ja sitä ei ole juurikaan tutkittu. Tutkimusotteeni on etnografinen. Olen havainnoinut kolmea, Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen eri tiloissa kokoontuvaa Pilke-ryhmää reilun puolen vuoden ajan. Tämän lisäksi olen haastatellut ryhmien jäseniä ryhmähaastattelun keinoin. Tutkimusnäkökulmaani olen laajentanut koskemaan myös ohjaajien työtä, koska pidän heidän työnsä näkyväksi tekemistä tärkeänä. Analyysissä yhdistän etnografisen aineiston temaattista luentaa ja diskurssianalyyttisempää otetta kiinnittäen huomiota puheella tuotettuihin ja puheen tuottamiin merkityksiin, vuorovaikutukseen keskustelijoiden välillä sekä identiteetin rakentumiseen puheessa. Tutkimuksessa pyrin kuvaamaan ja ymmärtämään ikääntyvien päihteidenkäyttäjien ryhmätoimintaa ja sen merkitystä ikääntyville sekä sitä, miten ryhmään löydytään. Ryhmähaastatteluissa kiinnostukseni kohdistuu etenkin siihen, miten ikääntyvät kokevat Pilke-ryhmätoiminnan ja millaisia määrittelyjä he itsestään ja suhteestaan ryhmätoimintaan tai alkoholiin antavat. Tuon esiin myös sitä, millaisiin haasteisiin tutkija voi törmätä tutkiessa ikääntyneitä päihteidenkäyttäjiä. Pohdin esimerkiksi afaattisesti puhuvien ihmisten haastattelemista ryhmähaastattelun keinoin sekä miksi havainnointi on mielestäni hyvä tapa tutkia ikääntyneitä päihteidenkäyttäjiä. Tulo Pilkkeeseen alkaa etsivästä työstä. Verkostojen yhteistyöllä ryhmiin päätyvät sellaiset ikääntyvät, joista suurin osa ei olisi kotonaan aktiivisten eläkeläisten harrastuspiireissä, koska niissä ei ole totuttu käymään ja sosiaalinen elämä on rajoittunut esimerkiksi lähiöravintolaan. Puhutaan haastavanakin pidetystä vähemmistöstä ikääntyneiden joukossa. Alkoholia on käytetty jo pitkään, tai sitä on ryhdytty käyttämään runsaasti vasta iäkkäänä. Pilkkeeseen löytyvistä ikääntyvistä varsin suuri osa kuitenkin kiinnittyy ryhmään. Tähän syynä ovat uusien ihmiskontaktien saamisen tärkeys, ohjaajien persoona, keskustelumahdollisuus ja mahdollisuus tehdä käsillä jotain, mitä kenties ei koskaan tulisi kotona tehtyä. Kynnys osallistumiseen on matala ja vaatimuksia elämäntapoja muuttamiselle ei ole. Pilkkeen merkitys siihen osallistuville on tulosteni mukaan suuri. Pilke katkaisee usein yksinäiseksikin koettua arkea ja muut ryhmässä käyvät koetaan tärkeiksi. Pilke tarjoaa mahdollisuuden jakaa ajatuksiaan ja omaa elämäntarinaansa. Huumori kantaa Pilke-tapaamisia. Myös käsillä tekeminen koetaan tärkeäksi ja sen huomaaminen, että tekemisen taito on tallella, voimaannuttaa. Pilke luo uudenlaista järjestystä elämään ja sen myötä myös alkoholinkäyttö osalla vähenee. Etenkin pitkäaikaisille jäsenille Pilkkeen voi sanoa muodostuvan kiinnipitäväksi ympäristöksi, joka on tutkimukseni keskeinen, alun perin D.W. Winnicottin käyttämä käsite.

Kansan raittiudeksi ja kotien onneksi : Naisten kieltolakimielipiteet ja toiminta kieltolain puolesta ja sitä vastaan 1919 - 1932

It is often maintained that the Prohibition Act (in force from 1 June 1919 to 5 April 1932) still influences both the Finnish alcohol policy and notions about alcohol. This study focuses on the development of women s opinions concerning Prohibition in Finland. What role did the formulation and expression of women s opinions and women's actions play in the final outcome of the Prohibition Act? What do the debate on Prohibition and women s activities for and against the legislation tell us about the status and possibilities of women to exert influence in the Finnish society of the Prohibition era? Women s opinions are particularly interesting since they deviated radically from what has generally been assumed. It was expected that the referendum of 1931 would result in a resounding vote of 100% in favour of Prohibition, but the outcome was a majority vote against it. Over 65% of the women who cast their vote in the referendum wanted a full repeal of Prohibition. The study approaches the history of Prohibition by combining methods and theories of the history of mentalities and social history with gender history. Women are examined as a heterogeneous group with dissimilar objectives and differing ways of acting and thinking. The research material consists of press materials, archival materials from organisations, personal materials and statistics from the Prohibition period. Both discourses and practices are examined; the object of the research is best described by Michel Foucault's concept of dispositif. When participating in the public debate on Prohibition, women based their right to express their opinions and take part in action on an ideological continuum spanning a hundred years, according to which home and family were central areas of women s interest. This idea was linked to questions of morality and social policy. On the other hand, women presented themselves as working taxpayers, voters and equal citizens. The most crucial issue in women's discussions was whether Prohibition improved or worsened the temperance of fathers, husbands and sons. The dichotomies town dweller - countryside dweller, Swedish-speaking Finnish-speaking, and middle class - working class were highly significant backgrounds both as factors dividing women and in public discussions regarding Prohibition. The 1931 referendum showed that the lines of demarcation drawn during the preceding debate did not materialise in political action in line with these dichotomies: the dispositif did not correspond to the discourse. Contrary to what was expressed in public, a great number of women among the labour and rural classes, among inland inhabitants and among Finnish-speakers were also against Prohibition. The media and organisations defended temperance and Prohibition almost until the end of the Prohibition era. This discourse was in conflict with the discourse of everyday conversations and practices in which alcohol was present.