The Roles of Phenotypic Plasticity and Plant-Microbe Interactions in the Evolution of Complex Traits in Boechera stricta

All organisms live in complex habitats that shape the course of their evolution by altering the phenotype expressed by a given genotype (a phenomenon known as phenotypic plasticity) and simultaneously by determining the evolutionary fitness of that phenotype. In some cases, phenotypic evolution may alter the environment experienced by future generations. This dissertation describes how genetic and environmental variation act synergistically to affect the evolution of glucosinolate defensive chemistry and flowering time in Boechera stricta, a wild perennial herb. I focus particularly on plant-associated microbes as a part of the plant’s environment that may alter trait evolution and in turn be affected by the evolution of those traits. In the first chapter I measure glucosinolate production and reproductive fitness of over 1,500 plants grown in common gardens in four diverse natural habitats, to describe how patterns of plasticity and natural selection intersect and may influence glucosinolate evolution. I detected extensive genetic variation for glucosinolate plasticity and determined that plasticity may aid colonization of new habitats by moving phenotypes in the same direction as natural selection. In the second chapter I conduct a greenhouse experiment to test whether naturally-occurring soil microbial communities contributed to the differences in phenotype and selection that I observed in the field experiment. I found that soil microbes cause plasticity of flowering time but not glucosinolate production, and that they may contribute to natural selection on both traits; thus, non-pathogenic plant-associated microbes are an environmental feature that could shape plant evolution. In the third chapter, I combine a multi-year, multi-habitat field experiment with high-throughput amplicon sequencing to determine whether B. stricta-associated microbial communities are shaped by plant genetic variation. I found that plant genotype predicts the diversity and composition of leaf-dwelling bacterial communities, but not root-associated bacterial communities. Furthermore, patterns of host genetic control over associated bacteria were largely site-dependent, indicating an important role for genotype-by-environment interactions in microbiome assembly. Together, my results suggest that soil microbes influence the evolution of plant functional traits and, because they are sensitive to plant genetic variation, this trait evolution may alter the microbial neighborhood of future B. stricta generations. Complex patterns of plasticity, selection, and symbiosis in natural habitats may impact the evolution of glucosinolate profiles in Boechera stricta.

中国兜兰属植物的传粉生态学研究

兰科植物多样化的花部性状和复杂的传粉系统为我们研究传粉者与花部性状关系提供了材料，兰科植物的多样性被认为是适应于多样化特化传粉者的结果。对同属不同形态的兰科植物进行传粉生态学观察，对于了解花部性状与传粉系统的关系，理解传粉者在花部进化中的作用具有重要意义。兜兰属植物是兰科植物中比较独特的类群，全世界约有69种，该属植物的花部性状（唇瓣形状、花部颜色）存在很大的差异。本文通过对我国4种具有不同花部性状的兜兰进行传粉生物学研究，探讨该属植物传粉机制与花部形状的关系和适应性进化等问题。 1.硬叶兜兰的传粉生物学 在贵州省东北部对硬叶兜兰传粉进行了连续4年的野外观察和实验，结果表明，硬叶兜兰是由蜂类传粉的，其中黄熊蜂是主要传粉者;硬叶兜兰不产生气味，主要依靠颜色来吸引传粉者。虽然传粉者主要为蜂类，但硬叶兜兰花还吸引了大量食蚜蝇访问者，并且蜂类和食蚜蝇在花上具有相似的行为。所以，硬叶兜兰的花信号是吸引“访问昆虫”，并不是专性吸引“传粉昆虫”的。虽然食蚜蝇类访问者也可以进入硬叶兜兰的传粉通道，但是硬叶兜兰传粉通道的大小决定了熊蜂为其主要传粉者，而频繁访花的食蚜蝇由于体形过小不能为硬叶兜兰传粉。 2.小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的传粉生物学 对小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的传粉生物学研究，证实了依据传粉综合征概念所作出的推测。小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰都是由食蚜蝇传粉的，两种兜兰在观察地点的主要传粉者均为黑带食蚜蝇;并且它们都是依靠欺骗食蚜蝇传粉的。通过气味分析，我们发现小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰都不产生气味，它们都是依靠颜色来欺骗传粉者的。但两种兜兰的欺骗机制存在差异，并且这种差异与花部颜色特征的不同相关。小叶兜兰黄色退化雄蕊的反射光谱符合觅食中的食蚜蝇对颜色的偏好，能有效的诱骗食蚜蝇传粉;长瓣兜兰则是利用花瓣基部的黑色突起和睫状毛模拟繁殖地（蚜虫）来欺骗雌性食蚜蝇。根据本实验结果，我们认为传粉综合征只是对应于不同的传粉选择压力而不是简单对应于传粉者种类，利用传粉综合征预测时还需要考虑生境和演化历史等因素对花部形态的影响，这样才可能得到有效的结果。 3. 带叶兜兰传粉生物学 在广西雅长自然保护区对带叶兜兰传粉进行了连续2年的野外观察。结果表明，带叶兜兰是自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。紫纹异巴食蚜蝇是观察地点唯一的传粉者。虽然小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的主要传粉者——黑带食蚜蝇也会访问带叶兜兰，但因为胸高较大不能通过传粉通道，常常被卡死在带叶兜兰的传粉通道中。通过对比小叶兜兰、长瓣兜兰和带叶兜兰的传粉通道大小，以及相应的传粉者的大小，我们发现带叶兜兰具有比其它两种兜兰小的传粉通道，同时，带叶兜兰主要传粉者的胸高也比其它两种兜兰主要传粉者的胸高小。带叶兜兰的传粉通道可以起到限制传粉者种类的作用。此外，带叶兜兰可能是通过模拟食蚜蝇的繁殖地来吸引传粉者的。 4.兜兰属传粉系统的转变 综合已有的关于兜兰属传粉机制的报道以及本文的观察结果，并结合分子系统学证据。我们做出如下推测，兜兰属中存在由蜂类传粉向蝇类传粉转变的趋势，并且这种转变是由兜兰属植物花颜色对昆虫的吸引以及花结构（传粉通道大小）对访问昆虫选择的共同作用结果。兜兰属中较为原始的种类（如硬叶兜兰）可以同时吸引蜂类和蝇类访问者;通过花各部分性状的转变，特别是假雄蕊在颜色上的特化（反射光谱变化范围），或花萼和花瓣的黑色突起和睫状毛附属物对繁殖地（蚜虫）的模拟，处于较进化地位的兜兰属种类则专性吸引食蚜蝇。同样地，兜兰属中较为原始的种类具有较大的传粉通道，从而限制了蝇类访问者作为传粉者，但允许体形较大熊蜂类访问者成为有效传粉者;随着传粉通道的变小，兜兰属植物则仅允许体形较小的食蚜蝇成为有效传粉者。传粉通道越小，有效传粉者的选择余地就越窄。

O paradigma orgânico e seus reflexos no indivíduo, na sociedade, no estado e nas organizações

o comportamento do homem está influenciado por vários fatores, dentre eles as necessidades básicas, a razão, o coração e a consciência. Para modificar o comportamento do homem com vistas a um comportamento mais cooperativo, faz-se necessário agir sobre algum desses fatores. Do ponto de vista ético o fator que deve ser trabalhado é a consciência, que permitiria o surgimento da estrutura organizacional orgânica. A estrutura orgânica permitiria às organizações, ao Estado e à sociedade, ter um relacionamento mais adequado com uma realidade social, universal e cósmica que se revela harmônica em seus princípios. A estrutura orgânica organizacional parte das propriedades da metáfora orgânica, presente em qualquer sistema orgânico (biológico, atômico e cósmico), e surge a partir dos seguintes pressupostos: a realidade pode ser representada como uma estrutura em rede orgânica, e o comportamento das pessoas vem determinado pelo nível de consciência. A estrutura orgânica possui os princípios de Autopoiesis e do Holograma, e tem uma série de propriedades aplicáveis em nível organizacional, tais como adaptação, evolução, flexibilidade e homeostase. A sociedade orgânica viria modelada pelos princípios e propriedades da estrutura orgânica, que induziriam o surgimento de comportamentos cooperativos e solidários dentro das instituições sociais, sobretudo aqueles relacionados com a organização do trabalho e a organização da economia. Adicionalmente, o paradigma orgânico conduziria ao estabelecimento das comunidades orgânicas. O Estado orgânico surgiria como decorrência de uma situação em que, o paradigma burocrático revelando-se inadequado para seu funcionamento, permitiria sua organização sob o paradigma orgânico. A substituição do paradigma organizacional burocrático-mecanicista vigente pelo paradigma orgânico, ocorreria de acordo com uma das seguintes alternativas: a) um processo intencional de mudanças minimalistas intercalado com ações radicais pontuais; ou b) uma situação de crise, em decorrência do impedimento do fluxo de mudanças naturais não implementadas. Propõe-se, assim, o paradigma orgânico como ponto de partida indispensável a mudanças conducentes ao bem estar individual e coletivo.

Abordagem scrum de gerenciamento ágil para desenvolvimento de novos produtos aplicada a área de ensaios de uma fabricante de aeronaves

There are many approaches and techniques about Administration and Management of Projects in order to provide greater agility, efficiency and transparency during the development process of new products. Simultaneously, a pursuit for a management approach more flexible in its planning and strategic changes during the development campaign, such as, comprehend the project's unpredictability level and deal it by monitoring and estimates tools. These features tend to accentuate itself in manufacturers of complex products, as aircraft and other aerospace technologies. By these conditions thus research aims to describe a case when the Agile Management Processing of Project Development Scrum was used in the Test area of an aircraft manufacturer. Focused on the Scrum implementation over the area, its adaptation, evolution and achievements the research proposes to analyze the improvements, indicate the obstacles and discuss solutions, contributing then to the theoretical basis of the considered theme and futures updates applicable to the area. The research is classified as qualitative; furthermore the information and data analyzed were obtained by interviews with professionals and observations of the processes from the major aircraft manufacturer

Evolutionary computation of forests with Degree- and Role-Constrained Minimum Spanning Trees

Finding the degree-constrained minimum spanning tree (DCMST) of a graph is a widely studied NP-hard problem. One of its most important applications is network design. Here we deal with a new variant of the DCMST problem, which consists of finding not only the degree- but also the role-constrained minimum spanning tree (DRCMST), i.e., we add constraints to restrict the role of the nodes in the tree to root, intermediate or leaf node. Furthermore, we do not limit the number of root nodes to one, thereby, generally, building a forest of DRCMSTs. The modeling of network design problems can benefit from the possibility of generating more than one tree and determining the role of the nodes in the network. We propose a novel permutation-based representation to encode these forests. In this new representation, one permutation simultaneously encodes all the trees to be built. We simulate a wide variety of DRCMST problems which we optimize using eight different evolutionary computation algorithms encoding individuals of the population using the proposed representation. The algorithms we use are: estimation of distribution algorithm, generational genetic algorithm, steady-state genetic algorithm, covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy, differential evolution, elitist evolution strategy, non-elitist evolution strategy and particle swarm optimization. The best results are for the estimation of distribution algorithms and both types of genetic algorithms, although the genetic algorithms are significantly faster.

Computación evolutiva de bosques de expansión mínimos con restricción de grado y de rol

Encontrar el árbol de expansión mínimo con restricción de grado de un grafo (DCMST por sus siglas en inglés) es un problema NP-complejo ampliamente estudiado. Una de sus aplicaciones más importantes es el dise~no de redes. Aquí nosotros tratamos una nueva variante del problema DCMST, que consiste en encontrar el árbol de expansión mínimo no solo con restricciones de grado, sino también con restricciones de rol (DRCMST), es decir, a~nadimos restricciones para restringir el rol que los nodos tienen en el árbol. Estos roles pueden ser nodo raíz, nodo intermedio o nodo hoja. Por otra parte, no limitamos el número de nodos raíz a uno, por lo que, en general, construiremos bosques de DRCMSTs. El modelado en los problemas de dise~no de redes puede beneficiarse de la posibilidad de generar más de un árbol y determinar el rol de los nodos en la red. Proponemos una nueva representación basada en permutaciones para codificar los bosques de DRCMSTs. En esta nueva representación, una permutación codifica simultáneamente todos los árboles que se construirán. Nosotros simulamos una amplia variedad de problemas DRCMST que optimizamos utilizando ocho algoritmos de computación evolutiva diferentes que codifican los individuos de la población utilizando la representación propuesta. Los algoritmos que utilizamos son: algoritmo de estimación de distribuciones (EDA), algoritmo genético generacional (gGA), algoritmo genético de estado estacionario (ssGA), estrategia evolutiva basada en la matriz de covarianzas (CMAES), evolución diferencial (DE), estrategia evolutiva elitista (ElitistES), estrategia evolutiva no elitista (NonElitistES) y optimización por enjambre de partículas (PSO). Los mejores resultados fueron para el algoritmo de estimación de distribuciones utilizado y ambos tipos de algoritmos genéticos, aunque los algoritmos genéticos fueron significativamente más rápidos.---ABSTRACT---Finding the degree-constrained minimum spanning tree (DCMST) of a graph is a widely studied NP-hard problem. One of its most important applications is network design. Here we deal with a new variant of the DCMST problem, which consists of finding not only the degree- but also the role-constrained minimum spanning tree (DRCMST), i.e., we add constraints to restrict the role of the nodes in the tree to root, intermediate or leaf node. Furthermore, we do not limit the number of root nodes to one, thereby, generally, building a forest of DRCMSTs. The modeling of network design problems can benefit from the possibility of generating more than one tree and determining the role of the nodes in the network. We propose a novel permutation-based representation to encode the forest of DRCMSTs. In this new representation, one permutation simultaneously encodes all the trees to be built. We simulate a wide variety of DRCMST problems which we optimize using eight diferent evolutionary computation algorithms encoding individuals of the population using the proposed representation. The algorithms we use are: estimation of distribution algorithm (EDA), generational genetic algorithm (gGA), steady-state genetic algorithm (ssGA), covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy (CMAES), diferential evolution (DE), elitist evolution strategy (ElististES), non-elitist evolution strategy (NonElististES) and particle swarm optimization (PSO). The best results are for the estimation of distribution algorithm and both types of genetic algorithms, although the genetic algorithms are significantly faster. iv

Estratos arquitectónicos : conceptos, lógicas, sinopsis

La presente tesis doctoral se centra en la investigación del "estrato arquitectónico", manejando conceptos, lógicas y sinopsis como puntos organizativos, enlazados y superpuestos, que den paso a un marco propositivo que pueda ser simultáneamente articulado e independiente. Una situación que, ante nuevos desafíos, pretende ir más allá de una estricta definición de estrato o de su noción preconcebida descrita desde la superposición de diversos materiales. Todo ello a fin de revelar los diferentes perfiles del estrato y de la estratificación. Para ello, se abre y amplía el campo de estudio proyectual/procesual desdibujando los límites entre disciplinas –geología, filosofía, tecnología, arquitectura–. Y al mismo tiempo, se construye una cartografía del estrato arquitectónico asociada: a una taxonomía descriptora, a nuevas formulaciones, a pensamientos de personajes reconocibles y/o rescatados –como Rowe/Slutzky, Smithson, Parent/Virilio, Koolhaas, MVRDV, etc.–, y, por último, a nuevas lógicas proyectuales y operativas referidas al estrato, que fusionan conocimientos complejos. Unos contenidos que habitualmente no se presentan en investigaciones doctorales tradicionales –lo que permite afrontar nuevos cambios metodológicos, e imprimir un punto de partida para el desarrollo de futuras investigaciones o de otros posibles caminos emergentes–. Así, el discurso se impregna de nuevos referentes teóricos dentro de una misma mitología común (la del estrato). Un tema abordado con claves híbridas, es decir, con estudios selectivos y escritos coleccionados –analizados a partir de antecedentes encontrados y consolidados–, combinados con interpretaciones subyacentes en la arquitectura contemporánea –que pueden todavía encontrarse en fase experimental–. Una investigación que muestra la adaptación, la evolución y el cambio de la definición de "estrato arquitectónico", así como de su apariencia, utilización y aplicación a lo largo del tiempo, consecuencia de las nuevas necesidades y/o de las nuevas bases ideológicas ocasionadas por nuevos descubrimientos. Estratos arquitectónicos que dotan al espacio de profundidad –desde la bidimensionalidad– mediante la superposición de planos paralelos hacia la construcción de una nueva experiencia de estratificación fenomenológica. Estratos que generan estímulos y cambian su materialidad –de opacos a (en)tramados– creando apariencias y produciendo diversos efectos, para posteriormente exfoliarse y convertirse en estratos habitables. Estratos capturadores del espacio-tiempo, o de las dinámicas internas. Llegando incluso, con un último giro, a la era digital, donde el estrato informacional –que continua siendo independiente, autónomo y diverso, y que puede ser modificado, manipulado, suprimido o activable sin alterar el conjunto–, propicia obtener sistemas flexibles, relacionales, capaces de mutar o adaptarse, asociados a distintos niveles de organización dispositiva, que impulsan acciones y hacen emerger lógicas proyectuales. Estratos que surgen de forma elaborada o espontánea en el territorio urbano o natural (ciudad sobre ciudad, suelo sobre suelo), que se aplican extendiendo e hibridando el territorio (paisajes operativos), que son replanteados artificialmente como mecanismos edificatorios según las exigencias existentes (estratos programáticos, capas especializadas), y que se implantan como capas/layers en los programas informáticos utilizados como herramientas de diseño (multicapas, sistemas de intercambio informacional). Un trabajo que se estructura de manera multicapa lo que permite recorrer la tesis como un mapa de secuencias, saltar entre estratos de información, o seleccionar lecturas según intereses de pensamiento o acción arquitectónica. En consecuencia, una investigación sobre el "estrato arquitectónico" que conecta diversas disciplinas, que recopila distintos posicionamientos teórico/prácticos –lo que implica la introducción de parámetros y datos vivos–, y afronta un posicionamiento estratégico que vuelve a poner en valor el estrato arquitectónico –partiendo de estrategias formales que se han transformado en estrategias experimentales/operativas (a medida que el entorno se ha ido complejizando), siguiendo una estrategia conceptual e intelectual contemporánea, propia y específica–. ABSTRACT This PhD thesis is based on the research of "architectural stratum" using concepts, logical and synopsis as organizational, linked and overlapping points, which give way to a proactive framework that can be articulated and independent simultaneously. A situation that, faced with new challenges, aims to go beyond a strict definition of stratum or their preconceived notion described from the superposition of different materials. All this in order to reveal the different profiles of stratum and stratification. To do this, it opens and widens the field of project/process study, blurring the boundaries between disciplines –geology, philosophy, technology, architecture–. And, at the same time, a cartography of the architectural stratum is constructed, that associates with: descriptor taxonomy, new formulations, thoughts of recognizable and/or rescued characters, –as Rowe/Slutzky, Smithson, Parent/Virilio, Koolhaas, MVRDV, etc.–, and finally, a new project and operational logics referred to stratum, which merge complex knowledge. A content not usually presented in traditional doctoral research –which can face new methodological changes, and creates a starting point for future research or other possible emerging paths–. Thus, the work is imbued with new theoretical framework within a common mythology (stratum’s myth). An issue addressed with hybrid keys, that is, with selective studies and collected writings –analyzed starting from found and consolidated backgrounds–, combined with underlying performances on contemporary architecture –which can still be in experimental phase–. A research that shows adaptation, evolution and change of the definition of "architectural stratum", as well as their appearance, use and application throughout time, result of the new requirements and/or the new ideological foundations caused by new discoveries. Architectural strata that give depth to space –from two-dimensionality– by overlapping parallel planes towards the construction of a new experience of phenomenological stratification. Strata that generate stimuli and change their materiality –from opaque to lattice– creating appearances and producing various effects, for later exfoliating and becoming habitable strata. Strata that capture space-time or internal dynamics. Even reaching, with a final twist, the digital age, where the informational stratum –which remains independent, autonomous and diverse, and can be modified, manipulated, deleted or activated without altering the whole–, contribute to obtaining flexible, relational systems, able to mutate or adapt, associated with different levels of regulatory organization, that drive actions and make emerge project logics. Strata that arise elaborately or spontaneously in urban or natural territory (city upon city, floor upon floor), which apply expanding and hybridizing the territory (operational landscapes), which are artificially restated as building mechanisms according to existing requirements (strata program, specialized layers), which are implemented as layers in the software used as design tools (multilayer, systems of informational interchange). A work that is structured in a multi-layered way, which allows explore the thesis as a sequence map, jump between layers of information, or select readings according to an interest in thought or architectural action. Therefore, an investigation into the "architectural stratum" that connects different disciplines, which collects different theoretical/practical positions –which implies the introduction of live parameters and data– and faces a strategic positioning returning to value the architectural stratum –based on formal strategies that have become experimental/operational strategies (as the environment has become more complex), following a conceptual, intellectual, contemporary, own specific strategy–.

ESTUDO DA EFICÁCIA ADAPTATIVA DE HERDEIROS DE EMPRESA FAMILIAR

O presente trabalho visa estudar a eficácia adaptativa dos herdeiros de empresa familiar, segundo a teoria da adaptação de Ryad Simon. Os objetivos foram: 1. investigar a eficácia adaptativa dos herdeiros de empresa familiar; 2. descrever aspectos da dinâmica adaptativa dos herdeiros; 3. descrever aspectos da dinâmica familiar internalizada pelos herdeiros de cada família; 4. investigar as repercussões obtidas pela análise da eficácia adaptativa de cada herdeiro no contexto da empresa familiar. O método utilizado foi clínico e a técnica, a entrevista clínica preventiva. Foram entrevistados sete herdeiros de duas diferentes empresas familiar, todos os herdeiros atuam profissionalmente nelas. Os dados das entrevistas foram avaliados clinicamente por meio da Escala Diagnóstica Adaptativa Operacionalizada (EDAO), e análise dos fatores, segundo Teoria da Evolução da Adaptação, de Ryad Simon. Os resultados encontrados foram: 72% (5 herdeiros) encontraram-se classificados no grupo 4 Adaptação Ineficaz Severa, 14% (1 herdeiro) no grupo 5 Adaptação Ineficaz Grave, e 14% (1herdeiro) no grupo 3 Adaptação Ineficaz Moderada em CRISE. Na análise destes resultados verificou-se a importância central do setor Afetivo-Relacional, 100% dos herdeiros foram classificados com respostas pouquíssimo adequadas, e o que mesclou as diferentes classificações, descritas acima, foi no setor Produtividade. Frente a este diagnóstico percebemos a importância das relações com a figura paterna, presente tanto no lar como na empresa. Na análise dos herdeiros e da dinâmica das duas famílias concluímos que quando a figura paterna comporta-se de forma onipotente e insubstituível, não permite que os filhos cresçam e busquem satisfação no que produzem. Diferente de quando este pai consegue colocar limites, mas gradativamente delega responsabilidades aos filhos, demonstrando confiar neles. Esta postura facilita o encontro da satisfação na área produtiva. Neste estudo ficou evidente que a dinâmica familiar estende-se até a empresarial, desta forma em uma das famílias, cujo pai foi capaz de delegar aos filhos o poder na empresa, a dinâmica na empresa parece ser saudável, permeada por impulsos construtivos. Enquanto a outra, cujo pai mantém o poder na empresa, parece estar muito doente, predominando os impulsos destrutivos na família com repercussão, também, na empresa.

ESTUDO DA EFICÁCIA ADAPTATIVA DE HERDEIROS DE EMPRESA FAMILIAR

O presente trabalho visa estudar a eficácia adaptativa dos herdeiros de empresa familiar, segundo a teoria da adaptação de Ryad Simon. Os objetivos foram: 1. investigar a eficácia adaptativa dos herdeiros de empresa familiar; 2. descrever aspectos da dinâmica adaptativa dos herdeiros; 3. descrever aspectos da dinâmica familiar internalizada pelos herdeiros de cada família; 4. investigar as repercussões obtidas pela análise da eficácia adaptativa de cada herdeiro no contexto da empresa familiar. O método utilizado foi clínico e a técnica, a entrevista clínica preventiva. Foram entrevistados sete herdeiros de duas diferentes empresas familiar, todos os herdeiros atuam profissionalmente nelas. Os dados das entrevistas foram avaliados clinicamente por meio da Escala Diagnóstica Adaptativa Operacionalizada (EDAO), e análise dos fatores, segundo Teoria da Evolução da Adaptação, de Ryad Simon. Os resultados encontrados foram: 72% (5 herdeiros) encontraram-se classificados no grupo 4 Adaptação Ineficaz Severa, 14% (1 herdeiro) no grupo 5 Adaptação Ineficaz Grave, e 14% (1herdeiro) no grupo 3 Adaptação Ineficaz Moderada em CRISE. Na análise destes resultados verificou-se a importância central do setor Afetivo-Relacional, 100% dos herdeiros foram classificados com respostas pouquíssimo adequadas, e o que mesclou as diferentes classificações, descritas acima, foi no setor Produtividade. Frente a este diagnóstico percebemos a importância das relações com a figura paterna, presente tanto no lar como na empresa. Na análise dos herdeiros e da dinâmica das duas famílias concluímos que quando a figura paterna comporta-se de forma onipotente e insubstituível, não permite que os filhos cresçam e busquem satisfação no que produzem. Diferente de quando este pai consegue colocar limites, mas gradativamente delega responsabilidades aos filhos, demonstrando confiar neles. Esta postura facilita o encontro da satisfação na área produtiva. Neste estudo ficou evidente que a dinâmica familiar estende-se até a empresarial, desta forma em uma das famílias, cujo pai foi capaz de delegar aos filhos o poder na empresa, a dinâmica na empresa parece ser saudável, permeada por impulsos construtivos. Enquanto a outra, cujo pai mantém o poder na empresa, parece estar muito doente, predominando os impulsos destrutivos na família com repercussão, também, na empresa.

ESTUDO DA EFICÁCIA ADAPTATIVA DE HERDEIROS DE EMPRESA FAMILIAR

O presente trabalho visa estudar a eficácia adaptativa dos herdeiros de empresa familiar, segundo a teoria da adaptação de Ryad Simon. Os objetivos foram: 1. investigar a eficácia adaptativa dos herdeiros de empresa familiar; 2. descrever aspectos da dinâmica adaptativa dos herdeiros; 3. descrever aspectos da dinâmica familiar internalizada pelos herdeiros de cada família; 4. investigar as repercussões obtidas pela análise da eficácia adaptativa de cada herdeiro no contexto da empresa familiar. O método utilizado foi clínico e a técnica, a entrevista clínica preventiva. Foram entrevistados sete herdeiros de duas diferentes empresas familiar, todos os herdeiros atuam profissionalmente nelas. Os dados das entrevistas foram avaliados clinicamente por meio da Escala Diagnóstica Adaptativa Operacionalizada (EDAO), e análise dos fatores, segundo Teoria da Evolução da Adaptação, de Ryad Simon. Os resultados encontrados foram: 72% (5 herdeiros) encontraram-se classificados no grupo 4 Adaptação Ineficaz Severa, 14% (1 herdeiro) no grupo 5 Adaptação Ineficaz Grave, e 14% (1herdeiro) no grupo 3 Adaptação Ineficaz Moderada em CRISE. Na análise destes resultados verificou-se a importância central do setor Afetivo-Relacional, 100% dos herdeiros foram classificados com respostas pouquíssimo adequadas, e o que mesclou as diferentes classificações, descritas acima, foi no setor Produtividade. Frente a este diagnóstico percebemos a importância das relações com a figura paterna, presente tanto no lar como na empresa. Na análise dos herdeiros e da dinâmica das duas famílias concluímos que quando a figura paterna comporta-se de forma onipotente e insubstituível, não permite que os filhos cresçam e busquem satisfação no que produzem. Diferente de quando este pai consegue colocar limites, mas gradativamente delega responsabilidades aos filhos, demonstrando confiar neles. Esta postura facilita o encontro da satisfação na área produtiva. Neste estudo ficou evidente que a dinâmica familiar estende-se até a empresarial, desta forma em uma das famílias, cujo pai foi capaz de delegar aos filhos o poder na empresa, a dinâmica na empresa parece ser saudável, permeada por impulsos construtivos. Enquanto a outra, cujo pai mantém o poder na empresa, parece estar muito doente, predominando os impulsos destrutivos na família com repercussão, também, na empresa.

Dynamic evolution of the alpha (α) and beta (β) keratins has accompanied integument diversification and the adaptation of birds into novel lifestyles.

BACKGROUND: Vertebrate skin appendages are constructed of keratins produced by multigene families. Alpha (α) keratins are found in all vertebrates, while beta (β) keratins are found exclusively in reptiles and birds. We have studied the molecular evolution of these gene families in the genomes of 48 phylogenetically diverse birds and their expression in the scales and feathers of the chicken. RESULTS: We found that the total number of α-keratins is lower in birds than mammals and non-avian reptiles, yet two α-keratin genes (KRT42 and KRT75) have expanded in birds. The β-keratins, however, demonstrate a dynamic evolution associated with avian lifestyle. The avian specific feather β-keratins comprise a large majority of the total number of β-keratins, but independently derived lineages of aquatic and predatory birds have smaller proportions of feather β-keratin genes and larger proportions of keratinocyte β-keratin genes. Additionally, birds of prey have a larger proportion of claw β-keratins. Analysis of α- and β-keratin expression during development of chicken scales and feathers demonstrates that while α-keratins are expressed in these tissues, the number and magnitude of expressed β-keratin genes far exceeds that of α-keratins. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the view that the number of α- and β-keratin genes expressed, the proportion of the β-keratin subfamily genes expressed and the diversification of the β-keratin genes have been important for the evolution of the feather and the adaptation of birds into multiple ecological niches.

Sequence divergence of measles virus haemagglutinin during natural evolution and adaptation to cell culture

Phylogenetic analysis of the sequence of the H gene of 75 measles virus (MV) strains (32 published and 43 new sequences) was carried out. The lineage groups described from comparison of the nucleotide sequences encoding the C-terminal regions of the N protein of MV were the same as those derived from the H gene sequences in almost all cases. The databases document a number of distinct genotype switches that have occurred in Madrid (Spain). Well-documented is the complete replacement of lineage group C2, the common European genotype at that time, with that of group D3 around the autumn of 1993. No further isolations of group C2 took place in Madrid after this time. The rate of mutation of the H gene sequences of MV genotype D3 circulating in Madrid from 1993 to 1996 was very low (5 x 10(-4) per annum for a given nucleotide position). This is an order of magnitude lower than the rates of mutation observed in the HN genes of human influenza A viruses. The ratio of expressed over silent mutations indicated that the divergence was not driven by immune selection in this gene. Variations in amino acid 117 of the H protein (F or L) may be related to the ability of some strains to haemagglutinate only in the presence of salt. Adaptation of MV to different primate cell types was associated with very small numbers of mutations in the H gene. The changes could not be predicted when virus previously grown in human B cell lines was adapted to monkey Vero cells. In contrast, rodent brain-adapted viruses displayed a lot of amino acid sequence variation from normal MV strains. There was no convincing evidence for recombination between MV genotypes.

The Fasciola hepatica genome: gene duplication and polymorphism reveals adaptation to the host environment and the capacity for rapid evolution

BACKGROUND: The liver fluke Fasciola hepatica is a major pathogen of livestock worldwide, causing huge economic losses to agriculture, as well as 2.4 million human infections annually.

RESULTS: Here we provide a draft genome for F. hepatica, which we find to be among the largest known pathogen genomes at 1.3 Gb. This size cannot be explained by genome duplication or expansion of a single repeat element, and remains a paradox given the burden it may impose on egg production necessary to transmit infection. Despite the potential for inbreeding by facultative self-fertilisation, substantial levels of polymorphism were found, which highlights the evolutionary potential for rapid adaptation to changes in host availability, climate change or to drug or vaccine interventions. Non-synonymous polymorphisms were elevated in genes shared with parasitic taxa, which may be particularly relevant for the ability of the parasite to adapt to a broad range of definitive mammalian and intermediate molluscan hosts. Large-scale transcriptional changes, particularly within expanded protease and tubulin families, were found as the parasite migrated from the gut, across the peritoneum and through the liver to mature in the bile ducts. We identify novel members of anti-oxidant and detoxification pathways and defined their differential expression through infection, which may explain the stage-specific efficacy of different anthelmintic drugs.

CONCLUSIONS: The genome analysis described here provides new insights into the evolution of this important pathogen, its adaptation to the host environment and external selection pressures. This analysis also provides a platform for research into novel drugs and vaccines.

Comparative genome analysis provides insights into the evolution and adaptation of Pseudomonas syringae pv. aesculi on Aesculus hippocastanum.

A recently emerging bleeding canker disease, caused by Pseudomonas syringae pathovar aesculi (Pae), is threatening European horse chestnut in northwest Europe. Very little is known about the origin and biology of this new disease. We used the nucleotide sequences of seven commonly used marker genes to investigate the phylogeny of three strains isolated recently from bleeding stem cankers on European horse chestnut in Britain (E-Pae). On the basis of these sequences alone, the E-Pae strains were identical to the Pae type-strain (I-Pae), isolated from leaf spots on Indian horse chestnut in India in 1969. The phylogenetic analyses also showed that Pae belongs to a distinct clade of P. syringae pathovars adapted to woody hosts. We generated genome-wide Illumina sequence data from the three E-Pae strains and one strain of I-Pae. Comparative genomic analyses revealed pathovar-specific genomic regions in Pae potentially implicated in virulence on a tree host, including genes for the catabolism of plant-derived aromatic compounds and enterobactin synthesis. Several gene clusters displayed intra-pathovar variation, including those encoding type IV secretion, a novel fatty acid biosynthesis pathway and a sucrose uptake pathway. Rates of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the four Pae genomes indicate that the three E-Pae strains diverged from each other much more recently than they diverged from I-Pae. The very low genetic diversity among the three geographically distinct E-Pae strains suggests that they originate from a single, recent introduction into Britain, thus highlighting the serious environmental risks posed by the spread of an exotic plant pathogenic bacterium to a new geographic location. The genomic regions in Pae that are absent from other P. syringae pathovars that infect herbaceous hosts may represent candidate genetic adaptations to infection of the woody parts of the tree.

Possible Host Adaptation as an Evolution Factor of Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus Deduced by Coat Protein Gene Analysis

Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV) causes major diseases in cowpea and passion flower plants in Brazil and also in other countries. CABMV has also been isolated from leguminous species including, Cassia hoffmannseggii, Canavalia rosea, Crotalaria juncea and Arachis hypogaea in Brazil. The virus seems to be adapted to two distinct families, the Passifloraceae and Fabaceae. Aiming to identify CABMV and elucidate a possible host adaptation of this virus species, isolates from cowpea, passion flower and C.hoffmannseggii collected in the states of Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte were analysed by sequencing the complete coat protein genes. A phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the obtained sequences and those available in public databases. Major Brazilian isolates from passion flower, independently of the geographical distances among them, were grouped in three different clusters. The possible host adaptation was also observed in fabaceous-infecting CABMV Brazilian isolates. These host adaptations possibly occurred independently within Brazil, so all these clusters belong to a bigger Brazilian cluster. Nevertheless, African passion flower or cowpea-infecting isolates formed totally different clusters. These results showed that host adaptation could be one factor for CABMV evolution, although geographical isolation is a stronger factor.