The Cougar Point tuff: Implications for thermochemical zonation and longevity of high-temperature, large-volume silicic magmas of the Miocene Yellowstone hotspot

The 12.7-10.5 Ma Cougar Point Tuff in southern Idaho, USA, consists of 10 large-volume (>10²-10³ km³ each), high-temperature (800-1000 °C), rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs erupted from the Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic center of the Yellowstone hotspot. These tuffs provide evidence for compositional and thermal zonation in pre-eruptive rhyolite magma, and suggest the presence of a long-lived reservoir that was tapped by numerous large explosive eruptions. Pyroxene compositions exhibit discrete compositional modes with respect to Fe and Mg that define a linear spectrum punctuated by conspicuous gaps. Airfall glass compositions also cluster into modes, and the presence of multiple modes indicates tapping of different magma volumes during early phases of eruption. Equilibrium assemblages of pigeonite and augite are used to reconstruct compositional and thermal gradients in the pre-eruptive reservoir. The recurrence of identical compositional modes and of mineral pairs equilibrated at high temperatures in successive eruptive units is consistent with the persistence of their respective liquids in the magma reservoir. Recurrence intervals of identical modes range from 0.3 to 0.9 Myr and suggest possible magma residence times of similar duration. Eruption ages, magma temperatures, Nd isotopes, and pyroxene and glass compositions are consistent with a long-lived, dynamically evolving magma reservoir that was chemically and thermally zoned and composed of multiple discrete magma volumes.

Solubility and Diffusivity of Water in Lunar Basalt, and Chemical Zonation in Olivine-Hosted Melt Inclusions

I report the solubility and diffusivity of water in lunar basalt and an iron-free basaltic analogue at 1 atm and 1350 °C. Such parameters are critical for understanding the degassing histories of lunar pyroclastic glasses. Solubility experiments have been conducted over a range of fO₂ conditions from three log units below to five log units above the iron-wüstite buffer (IW) and over a range of pH₂/pH₂O from 0.03 to 24. Quenched experimental glasses were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and secondary ionization mass spectrometry (SIMS) and were found to contain up to ~420 ppm water. Results demonstrate that, under the conditions of our experiments: (1) hydroxyl is the only H-bearing species detected by FTIR; (2) the solubility of water is proportional to the square root of pH₂O in the furnace atmosphere and is independent of fO₂ and pH₂/pH₂O; (3) the solubility of water is very similar in both melt compositions; (4) the concentration of H₂ in our iron-free experiments is <3 ppm, even at oxygen fugacities as low as IW-2.3 and pH₂/pH₂O as high as 24; and (5) SIMS analyses of water in iron-rich glasses equilibrated under variable fO₂ conditions can be strongly influenced by matrix effects, even when the concentrations of water in the glasses are low. Our results can be used to constrain the entrapment pressure of the lunar melt inclusions of Hauri et al. (2011).

Diffusion experiments were conducted over a range of fO₂ conditions from IW-2.2 to IW+6.7 and over a range of pH₂/pH₂O from nominally zero to ~10. The water concentrations measured in our quenched experimental glasses by SIMS and FTIR vary from a few ppm to ~430 ppm. Water concentration gradients are well described by models in which the diffusivity of water (D^*_water) is assumed to be constant. The relationship between D^*_water and water concentration is well described by a modified speciation model (Ni et al. 2012) in which both molecular water and hydroxyl are allowed to diffuse. The success of this modified speciation model for describing our results suggests that we have resolved the diffusivity of hydroxyl in basaltic melt for the first time. Best-fit values of D^*_water for our experiments on lunar basalt vary within a factor of ~2 over a range of pH₂/pH₂O from 0.007 to 9.7, a range of fO₂ from IW-2.2 to IW+4.9, and a water concentration range from ~80 ppm to ~280 ppm. The relative insensitivity of our best-fit values of D^*_water to variations in pH₂ suggests that H₂ diffusion was not significant during degassing of the lunar glasses of Saal et al. (2008). D^*_water during dehydration and hydration in H₂/CO₂ gas mixtures are approximately the same, which supports an equilibrium boundary condition for these experiments. However, dehydration experiments into CO₂ and CO/CO₂ gas mixtures leave some scope for the importance of kinetics during dehydration into H-free environments. The value of D^*_water chosen by Saal et al. (2008) for modeling the diffusive degassing of the lunar volcanic glasses is within a factor of three of our measured value in our lunar basaltic melt at 1350 °C.

In Chapter 4 of this thesis, I document significant zonation in major, minor, trace, and volatile elements in naturally glassy olivine-hosted melt inclusions from the Siqueiros Fracture Zone and the Galapagos Islands. Components with a higher concentration in the host olivine than in the melt (MgO, FeO, Cr₂O₃, and MnO) are depleted at the edges of the zoned melt inclusions relative to their centers, whereas except for CaO, H₂O, and F, components with a lower concentration in the host olivine than in the melt (Al₂O₃, SiO₂, Na₂O, K₂O, TiO₂, S, and Cl) are enriched near the melt inclusion edges. This zonation is due to formation of an olivine-depleted boundary layer in the adjacent melt in response to cooling and crystallization of olivine on the walls of the melt inclusions concurrent with diffusive propagation of the boundary layer toward the inclusion center.

Concentration profiles of some components in the melt inclusions exhibit multicomponent diffusion effects such as uphill diffusion (CaO, FeO) or slowing of the diffusion of typically rapidly diffusing components (Na₂O, K₂O) by coupling to slow diffusing components such as SiO₂ and Al₂O₃. Concentrations of H2O and F decrease towards the edges of some of the Siqueiros melt inclusions, suggesting either that these components have been lost from the inclusions into the host olivine late in their cooling histories and/or that these components are exhibiting multicomponent diffusion effects.

A model has been developed of the time-dependent evolution of MgO concentration profiles in melt inclusions due to simultaneous depletion of MgO at the inclusion walls due to olivine growth and diffusion of MgO in the melt inclusions in response to this depletion. Observed concentration profiles were fit to this model to constrain their thermal histories. Cooling rates determined by a single-stage linear cooling model are 150–13,000 °C hr^-1 from the liquidus down to ~1000 °C, consistent with previously determined cooling rates for basaltic glasses; compositional trends with melt inclusion size observed in the Siqueiros melt inclusions are described well by this simple single-stage linear cooling model. Despite the overall success of the modeling of MgO concentration profiles using a single-stage cooling history, MgO concentration profiles in some melt inclusions are better fit by a two-stage cooling history with a slower-cooling first stage followed by a faster-cooling second stage; the inferred total duration of cooling from the liquidus down to ~1000 °C is 40 s to just over one hour.

Based on our observations and models, compositions of zoned melt inclusions (even if measured at the centers of the inclusions) will typically have been diffusively fractionated relative to the initially trapped melt; for such inclusions, the initial composition cannot be simply reconstructed based on olivine-addition calculations, so caution should be exercised in application of such reconstructions to correct for post-entrapment crystallization of olivine on inclusion walls. Off-center analyses of a melt inclusion can also give results significantly fractionated relative to simple olivine crystallization.

All melt inclusions from the Siqueiros and Galapagos sample suites exhibit zoning profiles, and this feature may be nearly universal in glassy, olivine-hosted inclusions. If so, zoning profiles in melt inclusions could be widely useful to constrain late-stage syneruptive processes and as natural diffusion experiments.

Zonation of submerged vegetation in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe and its ecological interpretation

The submerged vegetation of Lake Kariba is described in relation to degree of slope (lake morphometry), depth and light transparency. The direct gradient analysis technique - canonical correspondence analysis and the TWINSPAN classification programs were used to analyse the data set. The western end of the lake with low transparency has a low species diversity (with Vallisneria aethiopica dominating). Species diversity increases with increased transparency in the other parts of the lake. The classification revealed monospecific communities for all species as well as mixed communities with Lagarosiphon as the associate species with the broadest distribution. The ordination revealed a first axis strongly related to the depth and transparency gradients and the second axis related to slope.

The zonation of soft-bottom sediments in Gorgan Bay (Caspian Sea) using macrobenthos as indicator of ecological health

In this study, in order to assess the ecological health status and zoning of soft bottom of Gorgan Bay, the spatial and temporal distribution of macrofauna and their relationship with environmental stress were investigated. Sediment samples were collected using a Van Veen grab at 22 sampling points, seasonally during 2012-2013. The averages (±SD) of the percentages of sand, silt, clay and TOM (Total Organic Matter) in the sediment samples were determined (44.4± 15, 53.4 ± 14, and 2.2 ±2.2 and 7.2% ± 1.6, respectively). Our results showed that mean (range) of Al, As, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn in the sediment samples were 1.2 % (0.4-2.1), 4.8 (2.5- 10.3) ppm, 10.5 (4.4-16.9) ppm, 1 (0.4 – 1.6) % , 13.6 (6.2-21.5) ppm, 9.1 (4.7-12.9) ppm and 23.9 (3.1-39.4) ppm, respectively. In spring, both Al and Ni were higher than the guideline level. In the event that arsenic was exceeds the guidelines in summer. In this study, 14 species of macrofauna from 12 families were identified. Polychaeta with 3 species was the most dominant group in terms of abundance. The four most abundant taxa making up 85% of all specimens (Streblospio gynobranchiata, Tubificidae, Hediste versicolor and Abra segmentum). The western area were characterized by the higher species diversity (H', 1.94). So Gorgan Bay presents transitional macrobenthic assemblages that are spatially distributed along substrate gradients .The mean of Shannon index, BENTIX, BO2A, AMBI and M-AMBI in the bay was 1.3, 2.2, 0.4, 3.2 and 0.65 respectively. According to the results of these indices, ecological status of the western part of the bay assessed better than the other parts. According to the results of the nmMDS (non-metric Multidimensional Scaling), PCA (Principal Components Analysis), the map of distribution of heavy metals and the map of the ecological status , it seems Gorgan Bay is divided into two separate zones (the eastern and the western parts).M-AMBI finaly introduced reliable index for assessing the ecological status of the Bay.

Invader-invader interactions in relation to environmental heterogeneity leads to zonation of two invasive amphipods, Dikerogammarus villosus (Sowinsky) and Gammarus tigrinus Sexton: amphipod pilot species project (AMPIS) report 6

As biological invasions continue, interactions occur not only between invaders and natives, but increasingly new invaders come into contact with previous invaders. Whilst this can lead to species replacements, co-existence may occur, but we lack knowledge of processes driving such patterns. Since environmental heterogeneity can determine species richness and co-existence, the present study examines habitat use and its mediation of the predatory interaction between invasive aquatic amphipods, the Ponto-Caspian Dikerogammarus villosus and the N. American Gammarus tigrinus. In the Dutch Lake IJsselmeer, we found broad segregation of D. villosus and G. tigrinus by habitat type, the former predominating in the boulder zone and the latter in the soft sediment. However, the two species co-exist in the boulder zone, both on the short and longer terms. We used an experimental simulation of habitat heterogeneity and show that both species utilize crevices, different sized holes in a plastic grid, non-randomly. These amphipods appear to optimise the use of holes with respect to their 'C-shape' body size. When placed together, D. villosus adults preyed on G. tigrinus adults and juveniles, while G. tigrinus adults preyed on D. villosus juveniles. Juveniles were also predators and both species were cannibalistic. However, the impact on G. tigrinus of the superior intraguild predator, D. villosus, was significantly reduced where experimental grids were present as compared to absent. This mitigation of intraguild predation between the two species in complex habitats may explain the co-existence of these two invasive species.

Ecologic zonation model of the benthic foraminifera and thecamoebians of Guadiana river estuary and application in paleoenvironmental reconstruction

Tese de doutoramento, Ciências do Mar ( Processos de Ecossistemas Marinhos), Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, 2012

The fish zonation of the Itanha,m river basin in the Atlantic Forest of southeast Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Foraminiferal ecological zonation along a Brazilian mangrove transect: Diversity, morphotypes and the influence of subaerial exposure time.

Two foraminiferal associations comprising only arenaceous species define two distinct environments in a 340 m-long mangrove transect at Cardoso Island, Trapande Bay (Cananeia-Iguape estuarine system, SP, Brazil). The "lower muddy flat" (LMF), from the outer mangrove fringe inwards towards land (100 m), is positioned in the lower plain between 0.04 and 0.23 m above the mean sea level (msl), and remains subaerially exposed between 48.5 and 65.6% of the time. This environment is characterized by higher foraminiferal diversity and evenness (McIntosh's D = 0.54 [plus or minus] 0.21 and Pielou's E = 0.68 [plus or minus] 0.25, respectively) and is dominated by Arenoparrella mexicana and Trochammina inflata, and to a lesser extent by Ammotium directum and Textularia earlandi. The mangrove plant of this segment is a Rhizophoretum with average height of 8.4 [plus or minus] 1.2 m. The sediment is characterized by higher concentration of organic matter (93.5 [plus or minus] 32.3 g dm-3) and metals (e.g. V = 53.4 [plus or minus] 21.8 ppm and Zn = 46.4 [plus or minus] 21.3 ppm). The "upper sandy flat" (USF), 240 m wide along the transect, is positioned in the upper plain between 0.28 and 0.89 m above the msl, and remains subaerially exposed between 69.7 and 98.5% of the time. This environment is characterized by a lower diversity and evenness (D = 0.33 [plus or minus] 0.17 and E = 0.49 [plus or minus] 0.20, respectively). The association is dominated by species T. inflata and Miliammina fusca. The Rhizophoretum exhibits a lower average height of 3.6 [plus or minus] 0.6 m. The sediment is poorer in organic matter (39.3 [plus or minus] 15.0 g dm-3) and metals (e.g. V = 13.0 [plus or minus] 6.8 ppm and Zn = 6.9 [plus or minus] 3.7 ppm). Whereas "elongate" tests (uniserial, biserial and planospiral followed by a uniserial portion) are restricted to the LMF, "spiraled" species dominate the USF. Subaerial exposure time seems to exert a primary influence on species distribution, in addition to salinity and sediment type. Species may be adapted to different exposure times, a factor dependent on their position on the intertidal zone and the tidal regime, which should be taken into account in relative sea level reconstructions based on intertidal foraminifera. These patterns have important implications for studies investigating the ecology and paleoecology of foraminifera and subtle fluctuations in relative sea level during the Quaternary.