Procesos de privatización del agua en América Latina: análisis y seguimiento de la interacción estratégica entre movimientos sociales versus multinacionales en Bolivia, Uruguay y México. Período 2000 – 2006

El presente escrito, constituye una aproximación a los procesos de privatización del agua en América Latina. Lo anterior, en el marco de la acción colectiva, específicamente de los movimientos sociales y su interacción estratégica con oponentes como las compañías multinacionales, las organizaciones financieras internacionales y el Estado. Tomando como referencia las luchas ocurridas en Bolivia, Uruguay y México, con especial énfasis en La Guerra del Agua en Cochabamba (Bolivia).

Alcances y limitaciones del modelo de privatización del agua en Bolivia como política pública auspiciada desde organismos internacionales (Década 2000-2010)

Bajo la tipología de estudio de caso, la presente investigación pretende explicar la influencia ejercida desde el Banco Mundial en la configuración de políticas públicas nacionales en Bolivia para la privatización del suministro, transporte y acceso al agua potable. El objetivo general de la investigación es explicar los alcances y limitaciones del modelo de privatización del agua en Bolivia como política pública, promovido por el Banco Mundial (BM), en la primera década del siglo XXI. Sosteniendo que el modelo de privatización del BM ha sido permeado y superado por el interés nacional del pueblo boliviano en materia de acceso al agua. Finalmente, la metodología empleada será de corte cualitativa a partir del análisis de documentos oficiales, textos académicos y científicos, legislaciones y disposiciones tomadas desde el BM y desde Bolivia en lo que respecta a la privatización del agua.

Gestão do ouro azul no contexto globalizado Neoliberal: bem econômico ou bem social?

The neoliberalism based on the Washington Consensus advised privatization as the most effective alternative for the management of natural resources. The question is what is prioritizing efficiency, market or welfare? The growing concern about the water issue has been highlighted in discussions in international policy debates, and what it turns out is the prominence of corporate and economic interests over social and environmental. The water is in crisis, there are several sources of popular conflicts around the world contrary to how this resource is being offered, as the Water War occurred in 2000 in the city of Cochabamba. It is necessary to respect its limitations to ensure their future availability and choose the best development model that favors the effectiveness of their control. The international proliferation of commercial vision concerning water stipulated privatization of their management as ideal rule, which increased rates, concentrated income, has not improved the quality nor promoted the conquest of equal access to water for most systems that provides these services, this is, privatization has not brought positive results that outweigh the harm of its implementation. Water is an essential commodity for life of living beings, in all its stages, basic reason to develop plans, rules and commitments that ensure its conservation and provide, as soon as possible, a valid alternative for the sustainable management in long term

The Inefficiency of Self-Sufficiency: Uzbekistan's Response to CASA-1000

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Ohio River. Letter from the Secretary of War transmitting pursuant to section 1 of the River and harbor act approved January 21, 1927, and section 10 of the Flood control act approved May 15, 1928, a letter from the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, dated August 14, 1935, submitting a report, together with accompanying papers and illustrations, containing a general plan for the improvement of the Ohio River for the purposes of navigation and efficient development of its water power, the control of floods, and the needs of irrigation.

"Report of the Board of engineers for rivers and harbors": p. 7-19.

Summary report on water quantity and quality studies of Vancouver Lake, Washington

Vancouver Lake, located adjacent to the Columbia River and just north of the Vancouver-Portland metropolitan area, is a "dying" lake. Although all lakes die naturally in geologic time through the process of eutrophication,* Vancouver Lake is dying more rapidly due to man's activities and due to the resultant increased accumulation of sediment, chemicals, and wastes. Natural eutrophication takes thousands of years, whereas man-made modifications can cause the death of a lake in decades. Vancouver Lake does, however, have the potential of becoming a valuable water resource asset for the area, due particularly to its location near the Columbia River which can be used as a source of "flushing" water to improve the quality of Vancouver Lake. (Document pdf contains 59 pages) Community interest in Vancouver Lake has waxed and waned. Prior to World War II, there were relatively few plans for discussions about the Lake and its surrounding land area. A plan to drain the Lake for farming was prohibited by the city council and county commissioners. Interest increased in 1945 when the federal government considered developing the Lake as a berthing harbor for deactivated ships at which time a preliminary proposal was prepared by the City. The only surface water connection between Vancouver Lake and the Columbia River, except during floods, is Lake River. The Lake now serves as a receiving body of water for Lake River tidal flow and surface flow from creeks and nearby land areas. Seasonally, these flows are heavily laden with sediment, septic tank drainage, fertilizers and drainage from cattle yards. Construction and gravel pit operations increase the sediment loads entering the Lake from Burnt Bridge Creek and Salmon Creek (via Lake River by tidal action). The tidal flats at the north end of Vancouver Lake are evidence of this accumulation. Since 1945, the buildup of sediment and nutrients created by man's activities has accelerated the growth of the large water plants and algae which contribute to the degeneration of the Lake. Flooding from the Columbia River, as in 1968, has added to the deposition in Vancouver Lake. The combined effect of these human and natural activities has changed Vancouver Lake into a relatively useless body of shallow water supporting some wildlife, rough fish, and shallow draft boats. It is still pleasant to view from the hills to the east. Because precipitation and streamflow are the lowest during the summer and early fall, water quantity and quality conditions are at their worst when the potential of the Lake for water-based recreation is the highest. Increased pollution of the Lake has caused a larger segment of the community to become concerned. Land use and planning studies were undertaken on the Columbia River lowlands and a wide variety of ideas were proposed for improving the quality of the water-land environment in order to enhance the usefulness of the area. In 1966, the College of Engineering Research Division at Washington State University (WSU0 in Pullman, Washington, was contacted by the Port of Vancouver to determine possible alternatives for restoring Vancouver Lake. Various proposals were prepared between 1966 and 1969. During the summer and fall of 1967, a study was made by WSU on the existing water quality in the Lake. In 1969, the current studies were funded to establish a data base for considering a broad range of alternative solutions for improving the quantity and quality of Vancouver Lake. Until these studies were undertaken, practically no data on a continuous nature were available on Vancouver Lake, Lake River, or their tributaries. (Document pdf contains 59 pages)

A photographic record of a pre- and post-lake creation event from World War II at Valley, Isle of Anglesey, UK

The article compares a recent aerial photograph of the lowlands of the Isle of Anglesey area with a German surveillance photograph from 1941. The authors aim to infer the environmental changes made to this sand dune and lake system as a direct consequence of constructing the airfield. Part of Tywyn Trewan, the extensive sand dune system, was completely destroyed in order to create runways and the technical and domestic accommodation to house a strategic airfield. As part of the dredging, six new water bodies with a combined surface area of approximately 6 ha were created.

The determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations in freshwaters from land use, stock headage and population data: testing of a model for use in conservation and water quality management

1. Nutrient concentrations (particularly N and P) determine the extent to which water bodies are or may become eutrophic. Direct determination of nutrient content on a wide scale is labour intensive but the main sources of N and P are well known. This paper describes and tests an export coefficient model for prediction of total N and total P from: (i) land use, stock headage and human population; (ii) the export rates of N and P from these sources; and (iii) the river discharge. Such a model might be used to forecast the effects of changes in land use in the future and to hindcast past water quality to establish comparative or baseline states for the monitoring of change. 2. The model has been calibrated against observed data for 1988 and validated against sets of observed data for a sequence of earlier years in ten British catchments varying from uplands through rolling, fertile lowlands to the flat topography of East Anglia. 3. The model predicted total N and total P concentrations with high precision (95% of the variance in observed data explained). It has been used in two forms: the first on a specific catchment basis; the second for a larger natural region which contains the catchment with the assumption that all catchments within that region will be similar. Both models gave similar results with little loss of precision in the latter case. This implies that it will be possible to describe the overall pattern of nutrient export in the UK with only a fraction of the effort needed to carry out the calculations for each individual water body. 4. Comparison between land use, stock headage, population numbers and nutrient export for the ten catchments in the pre-war year of 1931, and for 1970 and 1988 show that there has been a substantial loss of rough grazing to fertilized temporary and permanent grasslands, an increase in the hectarage devoted to arable, consistent increases in the stocking of cattle and sheep and a marked movement of humans to these rural catchments. 5. All of these trends have increased the flows of nutrients with more than a doubling of both total N and total P loads during the period. On average in these rural catchments, stock wastes have been the greatest contributors to both N and P exports, with cultivation the next most important source of N and people of P. Ratios of N to P were high in 1931 and remain little changed so that, in these catchments, phosphorus continues to be the nutrient most likely to control algal crops in standing waters supplied by the rivers studied.

Multifunctional water-soluble phosphorus dendrimers

Dendrimers are polymeric macromolecules with a regularly branched structure and are synthesised in an iterative fashion. Due to their monodispersity, well-defined shape and extremely high functionality, dendrimers are ideal nano-sized objects for functional and biocompatible surface coatings, biosensing and biomedicine. This dissertation describes the synthesis of ten novel water-soluble phosphorus containing dendrimers and their application in different biological and biomimetic systems. The dendrimers can be divided into two classes; the first type contains either a ferrocene at the core or 24 ferrocenes in the branches. They showed reversible reduction-oxidation behaviour and might be applied in electronic multilayered architectures. Dendrimers of the second class carry a dithiolane functionalised core that can strongly bind to noble metals, like gold substrates. Although such dendrimer coated substrates were unable to tether defect-free lipid bilayer membranes, the coatings were successfully applied for culturing Human Osteoblast cells. The cell adhesion to a coating of polycationic dendrimers was so strong that cell division could not take place, specifically evoking apoptosis. The polyanionic dendrimers, however, promoted excellent cell adhesion and proliferation. Therefore, the practical application of such macromolecular architectures can be envisioned, such as in dendrimer coatings for tissue engineering and or medical implants.

Structure formation of amphiphilic molecules at the air,water interface and after film transfer

One of the basic concepts of molecular self-assembly is that the morphology of the aggregate is directly related to the structure and interaction of the aggregating molecules. This is not only true for the aggregation in bulk solution, but also for the formation of Langmuir films at the air/water interface. Thus, molecules at the interface do not necessarily form flat monomolecular films but can also aggregate into multilayers or surface micelles. In this context, various novel synthetic molecules were investigated in terms of their morphology at the air/water interface and in transferred films. rnFirst, the self-assembly of semifluorinated alkanes and their molecular orientation at the air/water interface and in transferred films was studied employing scanning force microscopy (SFM) and Kelvin potential force microscopy. Here it was found, that the investigated semifluorinated alkanes aggregate to form circular surface micelles with a diameter of 30 nm, which are constituted of smaller muffin-shaped subunits with a diameter of 10 nm. A further result is that the introduction of an aromatic core into the molecular structure leads to the formation of elongated surface micelles and thus implements a directionality to the self-assembly. rnSecond, the self-assembly of two different amphiphilic hybrid materials containing a short single stranded desoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence was investigated at the air/water interface. The first molecule was a single stranded DNA (11mer) molecule with two hydrophobically modified 5-(dodec-1-ynyl)uracil nucleobases at the terminal 5'-end of the oligonucleotide sequence. Isotherm measurements revealed the formation of semi-stable films at the air/water interface. SFM imaging of films transferred via Langmuir-Blodgett technique supported this finding and indicated mono-, bi- and multilayer formation, according to the surface pressure applied upon transfer. Within these films, the hydrophilic DNA sequence was oriented towards air covering 95% of the substrate.rnSimilar results were obtained with a second type of amphiphile, a DNA block copolymer. Furthermore, the potential to perform molecular recognition experiments at the air/water interface with these DNA hybrid materials was evaluated.rnThird, polyglycerol ester molecules (PGE), which are known to form very stable foams, were studies. Aim was to elucidate the molecular structure of PGE molecules at the air/water interface in order to comprehend the foam stabilization mechanism. Several model systems mimicking the air/water interface of a PGE foam and methods for a noninvasive transfer were tested and characterized by SFM. It could be shown, that PGE stabilizes the air/water interface of a foam bubble by formation of multiple surfactant layers. Additionally, a new transfer technique, the bubble film transfer was established and characterized by high speed camera imaging.The results demonstrate the diversity of structures, which can be formed by amphiphilic molecules at the air/water interface and after film transfer, as well as the impact of the chemical structure on the aggregate morphology.

How different is water crystallization from polymer crystallization under confinement?

Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war es, Einblicke in das Kristallisationsverhalten weicher Materie („soft matter“), wie verschiedener Polymere oder Wasser, unter räumlicher Einschränkung („confinement“) zu erlangen. Dabei sollte untersucht werden, wie, weshalb und wann die Kristallisation in nanoporösen Strukturen eintritt. Desweiteren ist Kristallisation weicher Materie in nanoporösen Strukturen nicht nur aus Aspekten der Grundlagenforschung von großem Interesse, sondern es ergeben sich zahlreiche praktische Anwendungen. Durch die gezielte Steuerung der Kristallinität von Polymeren könnten somit Materialien mit verschiendenen mechanischen und optischen Eigenschaften erhalten werden. Desweiteren wurde auch räumlich eingeschränktes Wasser untersucht. Dieses spielt eine wichtige Rolle in der Molekularbiologie, z.B. für das globuläre Protein, und als Wolkenkondensationskeime in der Atmosphärenchemie und Physik. Auch im interstellaren Raum ist eingeschränktes Wasser in Form von Eispartikeln anzutreffen. Die Kristallisation von eingeschränktem Wasser zu verstehen und zu beeinflussen ist letztlich auch für die Haltbarkeit von Baumaterialien wie etwa Zement von großem Interesse.rnUm dies zu untersuchen wird Wasser in der Regel stark abgekühlt und das Kristallisationsverhalten in Abhängigkeit des Volumens untersucht. Dabei wurde beobachtet, dass Mikro- bzw. Nanometer große Volumina erst ab -38 °C bzw. -70 °C kristallisieren. Wasser unterliegt dabei in der Regel dem Prozess der homogenen Nukleation. In der Regel gefriert Wasser aber bei höheren Temperaturen, da durch Verunreinigungen eine vorzeitige, heterogene Nukleation eintritt.rnDie vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die sachdienlichen Phasendiagramme von kristallisierbaren Polymeren und Wasser unter räumlich eingeschränkten Bedingungen. Selbst ausgerichtetes Aluminiumoxid (AAO) mit Porengrößen im Bereich von 25 bis 400 nm wurden als räumliche Einschränkung sowohl für Polymere als auch für Wasser gewählt. Die AAO Nanoporen sind zylindrisch und parallel ausgerichtet. Außerdem besitzen sie eine gleichmäßige Porenlänge und einen gleichmäßigen Durchmesser. Daher eignen sie sich als Modelsystem um Kristallisationsprozesse unter wohldefinierter räumlicher Einschränkung zu untersuchen.rnEs wurden verschiedene halbkristalline Polymere verwendet, darunter Poly(ethylenoxid), Poly(ɛ-Caprolacton) und Diblockcopolymere aus PEO-b-PCL. Der Einfluss der Porengröße auf die Nukleation wurde aus verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten untersucht: (i) Einfluss auf den Nukleationmechanismus (heterogene gegenüber homogener Nukleation), (ii) Kristallorientierung und Kristallinitätsgrad und (iii) Zusammenhang zwischen Kristallisationstemperatur bei homogener Kristallisation und Glasübergangstemperatur.rnEs konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Kristallisation von Polymeren in Bulk durch heterogene Nukleation induziert wird und das die Kristallisation in kleinen Poren hauptsächlich über homogene Nukleation mit reduzierter und einstellbarer Kristallinität verläuft und eine hohe Kristallorientierung aufweist. Durch die AAOs konnte außerdem die kritische Keimgröße für die Kristallisation der Polymere abgeschätzt werden. Schließlich wurde der Einfluss der Polydispersität, von Oligomeren und anderen Zusatzstoffen auf den Nukleationsmechanismus untersucht.rn4rnDie Nukleation von Eis wurde in den selben AAOs untersucht und ein direkter Zusammenhang zwischen dem Nukleationstyp (heterogen bzw. homogen) und der gebildeten Eisphase konnte beobachtet werden. In größeren Poren verlief die Nukleation heterogen, wohingegen sie in kleineren Poren homogen verlief. Außerdem wurde eine Phasenumwandlung des Eises beobachtet. In den größeren Poren wurde hexagonales Eis nachgewiesen und unter einer Porengröße von 35 nm trat hauptsächlich kubisches Eis auf. Nennenswerter Weise handelte es sich bei dem kubischem Eis nicht um eine metastabile sondern eine stabile Phase. Abschließend wird ein Phasendiagramm für räumlich eingeschränktes Wasser vorgeschlagen. Dieses Phasendiagramm kann für technische Anwendungen von Bedeutung sein, so z.B. für Baumaterial wie Zement. Als weiteres Beispiel könnten AAOs, die die heterogene Nukleation unterdrücken (Porendurchmesser ≤ 35 nm) als Filter für Reinstwasser zum Einsatz kommen.rnNun zur Anfangs gestellten Frage: Wie unterschiedlich sind Wasser und Polymerkristallisation voneinander unter räumlicher Einschränkung? Durch Vergleich der beiden Phasendiagramme kommen wir zu dem Schluss, dass beide nicht fundamental verschieden sind. Dies ist zunächst verwunderlich, da Wasser ein kleines Molekül ist und wesentlich kleiner als die kleinste Porengröße ist. Wasser verfügt allerdings über starke Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen und verhält sich daher wie ein Polymer. Daher auch der Name „Polywasser“.

TANK SIZING AND OPTIMIZING LOOP PLACEMENT IN A BRANCHED WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

More than eighteen percent of the world’s population lives without reliable access to clean water, forced to walk long distances to get small amounts of contaminated surface water. Carrying heavy loads of water long distances and ingesting contaminated water can lead to long-term health problems and even death. These problems affect the most vulnerable populations, women, children, and the elderly, more than anyone else. Water access is one of the most pressing issues in development today. Boajibu, a small village in Sierra Leone, where the author served in Peace Corps for two years, lacks access to clean water. Construction of a water distribution system was halted when a civil war broke out in 1992 and has not been continued since. The community currently relies on hand-dug and borehole wells that can become dirty during the dry season, which forces people to drink contaminated water or to travel a far distance to collect clean water. This report is intended to provide a design the system as it was meant to be built. The water system design was completed based on the taps present, interviews with local community leaders, local surveying, and points taken with a GPS. The design is a gravity-fed branched water system, supplied by a natural spring on a hill adjacent to Boajibu. The system’s source is a natural spring on a hill above Boajibu, but the flow rate of the spring is unknown. There has to be enough flow from the spring over a 24-hour period to meet the demands of the users on a daily basis, or what is called providing continuous flow. If the spring has less than this amount of flow, the system must provide intermittent flow, flow that is restricted to a few hours a day. A minimum flow rate of 2.1 liters per second was found to be necessary to provide continuous flow to the users of Boajibu. If this flow is not met, intermittent flow can be provided to the users. In order to aid the construction of a distribution system in the absence of someone with formal engineering training, a table was created detailing water storage tank sizing based on possible source flow rates. A builder can interpolate using the source flow rate found to get the tank size from the table. However, any flow rate below 2.1 liters per second cannot be used in the table. In this case, the builder should size the tank such that it can take in the water that will be supplied overnight, as all the water will be drained during the day because the users will demand more than the spring can supply through the night. In the developing world, there is often a problem collecting enough money to fund large infrastructure projects, such as a water distribution system. Often there is only enough money to add only one or two loops to a water distribution system. It is helpful to know where these one or two loops can be most effectively placed in the system. Various possible loops were designated for the Boajibu water distribution system and the Adaptive Greedy Heuristic Loop Addition Selection Algorithm (AGHLASA) was used to rank the effectiveness of the possible loops to construct. Loop 1 which was furthest upstream was selected because it benefitted the most people for the least cost. While loops which were further downstream were found to be less effective because they would benefit fewer people. Further studies should be conducted on the water use habits of the people of Boajibu to more accurately predict the demands that will be placed on the system. Further population surveying should also be conducted to predict population change over time so that the appropriate capacity can be built into the system to accommodate future growth. The flow at the spring should be measured using a V-notch weir and the system adjusted accordingly. Future studies can be completed adjusting the loop ranking method so that two users who may be using the water system for different lengths of time are not counted the same and vulnerable users are weighted more heavily than more robust users.

Pastoralists at War: Violence and Security in the Kenya-Sudan-Uganda Border Region

The majority of those living in the border region of Kenya, Sudan, and Uganda are pastoralists, whose livelihoods are dictated by the upkeep and size of their herds. Harsh environmental conditions force pastoralists to migrate in search of water and pasturelands during the dry season. With limited access to water and competing rights to land, inter-tribal conflict arises when pastoralists from one tribe enter the territory of another. The increased availability of small arms in the region from past wars increasingly makes ordinary clashes fatal. Governments in the region have responded with heavy-handed coercive disarmament operations. These have led to distrust and subsequent violent clashes between communities and security providers. This report reviews the scale, consequences of, and responses to the many pastoral conflicts, utilizing methodological tools such as key informant interviews, retrospective analy¬sis, and a thorough review of available literature.

Maryland, West Virginia & Virginia : Civil War Telegram Map, 1862 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map: War telegram marking map. It was published by L. Prang & Co. in 1862. Scale [ca. 1:490,000]. Covers portions of Maryland, West Virginia, the District of Columbia, and eastern Virginia. The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the Universal Transverse Mercator projection (WGS 1984 UTM Zone 18N). All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as roads, railroads, drainage, selected points of military interest, and more. Relief shown by hachures. Includes text: "Explanations.The extraordinary large scale on which this map is drawn has been adopted to make it just what we designed it to be, namely 1st. The most distinct map ever published of the whole Virginia territory, where the decisive battles for the Union will be fought. 2nd. A marking map, that is a map to mark the change of positions of the Union forces in red pencil and the rebel forces in blue, on the receipt of every telegram from the seat of war..." This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps of the Civil War from the Harvard Map Collection. Many items from this selection are from a collection of maps deposited by the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States Commandery of the State of Massachusetts (MOLLUS) in the Harvard Map Collection in 1938. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features, in particular showing places of military importance. The selection represents a range of regions, originators, ground condition dates, scales, and purposes.

War of Austrian Succession, Genoa Region, Italy, 1747 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Carte géometrique de la ville et des environs de Gene : ou on voit l'expedition des Imperiaux et Piemontois contre le Genois et leurs alliez avec les differents postes, retranchements, attaques, déffenses, et mouvements de deux parties, le tout deßine sur le lieux, et de la maniere la plus exacte dans l'année 1747. It was published in 1747. Scale [ca. 1:38,980]. Covers the Genoa region, Italy. Map in French.The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the 'European Datum 1950 UTM Zone 32N' coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map.This map shows features such as towns and villages, roads, drainage, built-up areas and selected buildings, fortification and defenses, places of military interest related to the War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748, ground cover, and more. Relief shown by hachures. Includes index.This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from The Harvard Map Collection as part of the Imaging the Urban Environment project. Maps selected for this project represent major urban areas and cities of the world, at various time periods. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features at a large scale. The selection represents a range of regions, originators, ground condition dates, scales, and purposes.