The Warburg effect in mycobacterial granulomas is dependent on the recruitment and activation of macrophages by interferon-γ

Granulomas are the hallmark of mycobacterial disease. Here, we demonstrate that both the cell recruitment and the increased glucose consumption in granulomatous infiltrates during Mycobacterium avium infection are highly dependent on interferon-y (IFN-y). Mycobacterium avium-infected mice lacking IFN-y signalling failed to developed significant inflammatory infiltrations and lacked the characteristic uptake of the glucose analogue fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG). To assess the role of macrophages in glucose uptake we infected mice with a selective impairment of IFN-y signalling in the macrophage lineage (MIIG mice). Although only a partial reduction of the granulomatous areas was observed in infected MIIG mice, the insensitivity of macrophages to IFN-y reduced the accumulation of FDG. In vivo, ex vivo and in vitro assays showed that macrophage activated by IFN-y displayed increased rates of glucose uptake and in vitro studies showed also that they had increased lactate production and increased expression of key glycolytic enzymes. Overall, our results show that the activation of macrophages by IFN-y is responsible for the Warburg effect observed in organs infected with M. avium.

Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid hypothesis and the Inverse Warburg effect.

Epidemiological and biochemical studies show that the sporadic forms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are characterized by the following hallmarks: (a) An exponential increase with age; (b) Selective neuronal vulnerability; (c) Inverse cancer comorbidity. The present article appeals to these hallmarks to evaluate and contrast two competing models of AD: the amyloid hypothesis (a neuron-centric mechanism) and the Inverse Warburg hypothesis (a neuron-astrocytic mechanism). We show that these three hallmarks of AD conflict with the amyloid hypothesis, but are consistent with the Inverse Warburg hypothesis, a bioenergetic model which postulates that AD is the result of a cascade of three events-mitochondrial dysregulation, metabolic reprogramming (the Inverse Warburg effect), and natural selection. We also provide an explanation for the failures of the clinical trials based on amyloid immunization, and we propose a new class of therapeutic strategies consistent with the neuroenergetic selection model.

Synaptic plasticity and the Warburg effect.

Functional brain imaging studies show that in certain brain regions glucose utilization exceeds oxygen consumption, indicating the predominance of aerobic glycolysis. In this issue, Goyal et al. (2014) report that this metabolic profile is associated with an enrichment in the expression of genes involved in synaptic plasticity and remodeling processes.

Electrochemical imaging of living cell metabolism: investigation on Warburg effect in cancer

Cancer is one of the principal causes of death in the world; almost 8.2 million of deaths were counted in 2012. Emerging evidences indicate that most of the tumors have an increased glycolytic rate and a detriment of oxidative phosphorylation to support abnormal cell proliferation; this phenomenon is known as aerobic glycolysis or Warburg effect. This switching toward glycolysis implies that cancer tissues metabolize approximately tenfold more glucose to lactate in a given time and the amount of lactate released from cancer tissues is much greater than from normal ones. In view of these fundamental discoveries alterations of the cellular metabolism should be considered a crucial hallmark of cancer. Therefore, the investigation of the metabolic differences between normal and transformed cells is important in cancer research and it might find clinical applications. The aim of the project was to investigate the cellular metabolic alterations at single cell level, by monitoring glucose and lactate, in order to provide a better insight in cancer research. For this purpose, electrochemical techniques have been applied. Enzyme-based electrode biosensors for lactate and glucose were –ad hoc- optimized within the project and used as probes for Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy (SECM). The UME biosensor manufacturing and optimization represented a consistent part of the work and a full description of the sensor preparation protocols and of the characterization methods employed is reported. This set-up (SECM used with microbiosensor probes) enabled the non-invasive study of cellular metabolism at single cell level. The knowledge of cancer cell metabolism is required to design more efficient treatment strategies.

From the Cover: Arsenite Uncouples Mitochondrial Respiration and Induces a Warburg-like Effect in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Millions of people worldwide are chronically exposed to arsenic through contaminated drinking water. Despite decades of research studying the carcinogenic potential of arsenic, the mechanisms by which arsenic causes cancer and other diseases remain poorly understood. Mitochondria appear to be an important target of arsenic toxicity. The trivalent arsenical, arsenite, can induce mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production, inhibit enzymes involved in energy metabolism, and induce aerobic glycolysis in vitro, suggesting that metabolic dysfunction may be important in arsenic-induced disease. Here, using the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans and a novel metabolic inhibition assay, we report an in vivo induction of aerobic glycolysis following arsenite exposure. Furthermore, arsenite exposure induced severe mitochondrial dysfunction, including altered pyruvate metabolism; reduced steady-state ATP levels, ATP-linked respiration and spare respiratory capacity; and increased proton leak. We also found evidence that induction of autophagy is an important protective response to arsenite exposure. Because these results demonstrate that mitochondria are an important in vivo target of arsenite toxicity, we hypothesized that deficiencies in mitochondrial electron transport chain genes, which cause mitochondrial disease in humans, would sensitize nematodes to arsenite. In agreement with this, nematodes deficient in electron transport chain complexes I, II, and III, but not ATP synthase, were sensitive to arsenite exposure, thus identifying a novel class of gene-environment interactions that warrant further investigation in the human populace.

Targeting lactate transport suppresses in vivo breast tumour growth

Background: Most cancers, including breast cancer, have high rates of glucose consumption, associated with lactate production, a process referred as “Warburg effect”. Acidification of the tumour microenvironment by lactate extrusion, performed by lactate transporters (MCTs), is associated with higher cell proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis and increased cell survival. Previously, we have described MCT1 up-regulation in breast carcinoma samples and demonstrated the importance of in vitro MCT inhibition. In this study, we performed siRNA knockdown of MCT1 and MCT4 in basal-like breast cancer cells in both normoxia and hypoxia conditions to validate the potential of lactate transport inhibition in breast cancer treatment. Results: The effect of MCT knockdown was evaluated on lactate efflux, proliferation, cell biomass, migration and invasion and induction of tumour xenografts in nude mice. MCT knockdown led to a decrease in in vitro tumour cell aggressiveness, with decreased lactate transport, cell proliferation, migration and invasion and, importantly, to an inhibition of in vivo tumour formation and growth. Conclusions: This work supports MCTs as promising targets in cancer therapy, demonstrates the contribution of MCTs to cancer cell aggressiveness and, more importantly, shows, for the first time, the disruption of in vivo breast tumour growth by targeting lactate transport.

New mechanisms that regulate the expression of genes implicated in the process of ketogenesis

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Biotecnologia

Targeting lactate transport suppresses in vivo breast tumour growth.

BACKGROUND Most cancers, including breast cancer, have high rates of glucose consumption, associated with lactate production, a process referred as "Warburg effect". Acidification of the tumour microenvironment by lactate extrusion, performed by lactate transporters (MCTs), is associated with higher cell proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis and increased cell survival. Previously, we have described MCT1 up-regulation in breast carcinoma samples and demonstrated the importance of in vitro MCT inhibition. In this study, we performed siRNA knockdown of MCT1 and MCT4 in basal-like breast cancer cells in both normoxia and hypoxia conditions to validate the potential of lactate transport inhibition in breast cancer treatment. RESULTS The effect of MCT knockdown was evaluated on lactate efflux, proliferation, cell biomass, migration and invasion and induction of tumour xenografts in nude mice. MCT knockdown led to a decrease in in vitro tumour cell aggressiveness, with decreased lactate transport, cell proliferation, migration and invasion and, importantly, to an inhibition of in vivo tumour formation and growth. CONCLUSIONS This work supports MCTs as promising targets in cancer therapy, demonstrates the contribution of MCTs to cancer cell aggressiveness and, more importantly, shows, for the first time, the disruption of in vivo breast tumour growth by targeting lactate transport.

Glucose addiction in cancer therapy : advances and drawbacks

Glucose addiction in cancer therapy: advances and drawbacks.

The histone deactylase SIRT6 is a novel tumor suppressor that regulates cancer metabolism.

Report for the scientific sojourn carried out at the University of Aarhus, Denmark, from 2010 to 2012. Reprogramming of cellular metabolism is a key process during tumorigenesis. This metabolic adaptation is required in order to sustain the energetic and anabolic demands of highly proliferative cancer cells. Despite known for decades (Warburg effect), the precise molecular mechanisms regulating this switch remained unexplored. We have identify SIRT6 as a novel tumor suppressor that regulates aerobic glycolysis in cancer cells. Importantly, loss of this sirtuin in non-transformed cells leads to tumor formation without activation of known oncogenes, indicating that SIRT6 functions as a first-hit tumor suppressor. Furthermore, transformed SIRT6-deficient cells display increased glycolysis and tumor growth in vivo, suggesting that SIRT6 plays a role in both establishment and maintenance of cancer. We provide data demonstrating that the glycolytic switch towards aerobic glycolysis is the main driving force for tumorigenesis in SIRT6-deficient cells, since inhibition of glycolysis in these cells abrogates their tumorigenic potential. By using a conditional SIRT6-targeted allele, we show that deletion of SIRT6 in vivo increases the number, size and aggressiveness of tumors, thereby confirming a role of SIRT6 as a tumor suppressor in vivo. In addition, we describe a new role for SIRT6 as a regulator of ribosome biogenesis by co-repressing MYC transcriptional activity. Therefore, by repressing glycolysis and ribosomal gene expression, SIRT6 inhibits tumor establishment and progression. Further validating these data, SIRT6 is selectively downregulated in several human cancers, and expression levels of SIRT6 predict both prognosis and tumor-free survival rates, highlighting SIRT6 as a critical modulator of cancer metabolism. Our results provide a potential Achilles’ hill to tackle cancer metabolism.

Targeting cancer cell metabolism in pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is expected to become the second leading cause of cancer death by 2030. Current therapeutic options are limited, warranting an urgent need to explore innovative treatment strategies. Due to specific microenvironment constraints including an extensive desmoplastic stroma reaction, PDAC faces major metabolic challenges, principally hypoxia and nutrient deprivation. Their connection with oncogenic alterations such as KRAS mutations has brought metabolic reprogramming to the forefront of PDAC therapeutic research. The Warburg effect, glutamine addiction, and autophagy stand as the most important adaptive metabolic mechanisms of cancer cells themselves, however metabolic reprogramming is also an important feature of the tumor microenvironment, having a major impact on epigenetic reprogramming and tumor cell interactions with its complex stroma. We present a comprehensive overview of the main metabolic adaptations contributing to PDAC development and progression. A review of current and future therapies targeting this range of metabolic pathways is provided.

Évaluation du lactate sanguin chez les chiens atteints de cancer

Malgré le manque d’études sur ce sujet, le cancer est considéré comme une des principales causes d’hyperlactatémie de type B chez le chien. Les cellules malignes ont une production accrue de lactates secondaire à une glycolyse aérobie accrue, via l’effet Warburg. Les mécanismes ne sont pas encore clairement établis mais certains auteurs suggèrent que le cancer pourrait causer une hyperlactatémie via l’effet Warburg. Cette étude a pour objectif de déterminer si les tumeurs malignes peuvent être associées à une hyperlactatémie cliniquement significative (≥2,5 mmol/L) chez le chien. Trente-sept chiens atteints de tumeurs malignes ont été recrutés (22 atteints de tumeurs hématopoïétiques et 15 de tumeurs non hématopoïétiques). Le diagnostic était confirmé par analyse histologique, ou cytologique en cas de lymphome. Les autres causes possibles d’hyperlactatémie étaient écartées puis la mesure des lactates sanguins était réalisée sur sang veineux jugulaire immédiatement analysé avec le LactatePro®. Aucun chien n’était hyperlactatémique. La concentration moyenne en lactates sanguins était de 1,09 mmol/L. La concentration moyenne en lactates sanguins pour les chiens atteints de tumeurs non hématopoïétiques et hématopoïétiques était respectivement de 0,95 mmol/L et de 1,19 mmol/L. Les chiens atteints de lymphome (n=18) avaient une concentration moyenne en lactates sanguins de 1,15 mmol/L. Les tumeurs malignes ne sont pas associées à une hyperlactatémie de type B cliniquement significative chez le chien. L’hyperlactatémie tumorale est donc une complication rare chez le chien. Son diagnostic devrait conduire à une investigation minutieuse des autres causes d’hyperlactatémie.

Le rôle de sirtuine 3 dans la rétinopathie du prématuré

Dans les pays industrialisés, les rétinopathies ischémiques proliférantes telles que la rétinopathie diabétique et la rétinopathie du prématuré sont les principales causes de cécité chez les individus en âge de travailler et la population pédiatrique. Ces pathologies sont caractérisées par une dégénérescence microvasculaire initiale suivie d’une hyper-vascularisaton compensatoire disproportionnée et pathologique. Les sirtuines constituent une importante famille de protéines impliquées dans le métabolisme et la réponse au stress. Plus particulièrement, sirtuine 3 (SIRT3) est une déacétylase mitochondriale primordiale qui agit au cœur du métabolisme énergétique et de l’activation de nombreuses voies métaboliques oxydatives. Nos résultats démontrent pour la première fois qu’une déficience en SIRT3 diminue la sévérité des lésions vasculaires dans le modèle murin de rétinopathie induite par l’oxygène (OIR). En plus de stimuler l’angiogénèse, l’absence de SIRT3 est aussi associée à une augmentation de la glycolyse, possiblement en activant la famille de gènes 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (PFKFB). Nous suggérons que le manque de SIRT3 est impliqué dans l’effet Warburg et procure ainsi un avantage prolifératif et protecteur dans l’OIR. La présente étude propose SIRT3 comme nouvelle cible thérapeutique potentielle dans la rétinopathie du prématuré, une maladie dont les complications désastreuses persistent tout au long de la vie.

La modulation du métabolisme cellulaire par l'E3 Ubiquitine Ligase MARCH-1

La relocalisation et la dégradation médiée par ubiquitination sont utilisées par la cellule pour contrôler la localisation et l’expression de ses protéines. L’E3 ubiquitine ligase MARCH1 est impliqué dans la régulation post-traductionnelle de CMH-II et de CD86. Dans ce mémoire, on propose un rôle additionnel à MARCH1. Nos résultats expérimentaux nous portent à croire que MARCH1 pourrait moduler le métabolisme cellulaire en favorisant la relocalisation et la dégradation d’enzymes impliquées dans la glycolyse. La grande majorité des cellules utilise la phosphorylation oxydative pour générer de l’ATP en présence d’oxygène. Dans un environnement hypoxique, cette dernière est non fonctionnelle et la cellule doit utiliser la glycolyse anaérobique pour produire son ATP. Une cellule cancéreuse à des besoins énergétiques supérieurs en raison de l’augmentation de sa biomasse et de sa prolifération incontrôlée. Pour subvenir à ces besoins, elle maximise sa production d’énergie en modifiant son métabolisme; c’est l’effet Warburg. On retrouve dans les cellules immunitaires des modifications similaires au métabolisme cellulaire suite à un signal d’activation. Ici, nous montrons que la respiration mitochondriale maximale, la réserve respiratoire et la glycolyse maximale sont diminuées dans les cellules présentatrice d’antigènes qui expriment MARCH1. Nous avons montré que MARCH1 était localisable au niveau de la mitochondrie, ce qui lui permet d’interagir avec les enzymes de la glycolyse. Finalement, nous avons quantifié l’expression de Eno1 et de LDHB par Western Blot, pour montrer une augmentation de l’expression de ces enzymes en absence de MARCH1. À la lumière de ces résultats, nous discutons des avantages que procure la diminution de l’expression de MARCH1 dans un contexte inflammatoire, suite à l’activation des cellules présentatrices d’antigènes. Ce phénomène permettrait une présentation antigénique plus efficace, une augmentation de la production d’énergie et une meilleure résistance aux ROS produits lors de la réponse inflammatoire.

Efecto de la hipoxia-reoxigenación y las radiaciones ionizantes en la captación de glucosa en líneas tumorales de seno y colon cocultivadas con células endoteliales.

La captación de glucosa y su conversión en lactato juega un papel fundamental en el metabolismo tumoral, independientemente de la concentración de oxígeno presente en el tejido (efecto Warburg). Sin embrago, dicha captación varía de un tipo tumoral a otro, y dentro del mismo tumor, situación que podría depender de las características microambientales tumorales (fluctuaciones de oxígeno, presencia de otros tipos celulares) y de factores estresores asociados a los tratamientos. Se estudió el efecto de la hipoxia-reoxigenación (HR) y las radiaciones ionizantes (RI) sobre la captación de glucosa, en cultivos de líneas tumorales MCF-7 y HT-29, cultivadas de forma aislada o en cocultivo con la línea celular EAhy296. Se encontró que la captación de glucosa en HR es diferente para lo descrito en condiciones de hipoxia permanente y que es modificada en el cocultivo. Se identificaron poblaciones celulares dentro de la misma línea celular, de alta y baja captación de glucosa, lo que implicaría una simbiosis metabólica de la célula como respuesta adaptativa a las condiciones tumorales. Se evaluó la expresión de NRF2 y la translocación nuclear de NRF2 y HIF1a, como vías de respuesta a estrés celular e hipoxia. La translocación nuclear de las proteínas evaluadas explicaría el comportamiento metabólico de las células tumorales de seno, pero no de colon, por lo cual deben existir otras vías metabólicas implicadas. Las diferencias en el comportamiento de las células tumorales en HR en relación con hipoxia permitirá realizar planeaciones dosimétricas más dinámicas, que reevalúen las condiciones de oxigenación tumoral constantemente.