Hermes; or, A philosophical inquiry concerning universal grammar,

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Teaching grammar: A study of the common English grammar errors and grammar teaching methods that can be relevant for Swedish upper secondary schools

Grammar has always been an important part of language learning. Based on various theories, such as the universal grammar theory (Chomsky, 1959) and, the input theory (Krashen, 1970), the explicit and implicit teaching methods have been developed. Research shows that both methods may have some benefits and disadvantages. The attitude towards English grammar teaching methods in schools has also changed and nowadays grammar teaching methods and learning strategies, as a part of language mastery, are one of the discussion topics among linguists. This study focuses on teacher and learner experiences and beliefs about teaching English grammar and difficulties learners may face. The aim of the study is to conduct a literature review and to find out what scientific knowledge exists concerning the previously named topics. Along with this, the relevant steering documents are investigated focusing on grammar teaching at Swedish upper secondary schools. The universal grammar theory of Chomsky as well as Krashen’s input hypotheses provide the theoretical background for the current study. The study has been conducted applying qualitative and quantitative methods. The systematic search in four databases LIBRIS, ERIK, LLBA and Google Scholar were used for collecting relevant publications. The result shows that scientists’ publications name different grammar areas that are perceived as problematic for learners all over the world. The most common explanation of these difficulties is the influence of learner L1. Research presents teachers’ and learners’ beliefs to the benefits of grammar teaching methods. An effective combination of teaching methods needs to be done to fit learners’ expectations and individual needs. Together, they will contribute to the achieving of higher language proficiency levels and, therefore, they can be successfully applied at Swedish upper secondary schools.

On L2 grammar and processing: the case of oblique relative clauses and the Null-Prep phenomenon

This dissertation investigates the acquisition of oblique relative clauses in L2 Spanish by English and Moroccan Arabic speakers in order to understand the role of previous linguistic knowledge and its interaction with Universal Grammar on the one hand, and the relationship between grammatical knowledge and its use in real-time, on the other hand. Three types of tasks were employed: an oral production task, an on-line self-paced grammaticality judgment task, and an on-line self-paced reading comprehension task. Results indicated that the acquisition of oblique relative clauses in Spanish is a problematic area for second language learners of intermediate proficiency in the language, regardless of their native language. In particular, this study has showed that, even when the learners’ native language shares the main properties of the L2, i.e., fronting of the obligatory preposition (Pied-Piping), there is still room for divergence, especially in production and timed grammatical intuitions. On the other hand, reaction time data have shown that L2 learners can and do converge at the level of sentence processing, showing exactly the same real-time effects for oblique relative clauses that native speakers had. Processing results demonstrated that native and non-native speakers alike are able to apply universal processing principles such as the Minimal Chain Principle (De Vincenzi, 1991) even when the L2 learners still have incomplete grammatical representations, a result that contradicts some of the predictions of the Shallow Structure Hypothesis (Clahsen & Felser, 2006). Results further suggest that the L2 processing and comprehension domains may be able to access some type of information that it is not yet available to other grammatical modules, probably because transfer of certain L1 properties occurs asymmetrically across linguistic domains. In addition, this study also explored the Null-Prep phenomenon in L2 Spanish, and proposed that Null-Prep is an interlanguage stage, fully available and accounted within UG, which intermediate L2 as well as first language learners go through in the development of pied-piping oblique relative clauses. It is hypothesized that this intermediate stage is the result of optionality of the obligatory preposition in the derivation, when it is not crucial for the meaning of the sentence, and when the DP is going to be in an A-bar position, so it can get default case. This optionality can be predicted by the Bottleneck Hypothesis (Slabakova, 2009c) if we consider that these prepositions are some sort of functional morphology. This study contributes to the field of SLA and L2 processing in various ways. First, it demonstrates that the grammatical representations may be dissociated from grammatical processing in the sense that L2 learners, unlike native speakers, can present unexpected asymmetries such as a convergent processing but divergent grammatical intuitions or production. This conclusion is only possible under the assumption of a modular language system. Finally, it contributes to the general debate of generative SLA since in argues for a fully UG-constrained interlanguage grammar.

Parameter setting and statistical learning

Three main models of parameter setting have been proposed: the Variational model proposed by Yang (2002; 2004), the Structured Acquisition model endorsed by Baker (2001; 2005), and the Very Early Parameter Setting (VEPS) model advanced by Wexler (1998). The VEPS model contends that parameters are set early. The Variational model supposes that children employ statistical learning mechanisms to decide among competing parameter values, so this model anticipates delays in parameter setting when critical input is sparse, and gradual setting of parameters. On the Structured Acquisition model, delays occur because parameters form a hierarchy, with higher-level parameters set before lower-level parameters. Assuming that children freely choose the initial value, children sometimes will miss-set parameters. However when that happens, the input is expected to trigger a precipitous rise in one parameter value and a corresponding decline in the other value. We will point to the kind of child language data that is needed in order to adjudicate among these competing models.

Hermès ou Recherches philosophiques sur la grammaire universelle... ([Reprod.]) / de Jacques Harris ; traduit de l'anglais... avec des remarques et des additions par François Thurot

Titre original : Hermes or a Philosophical inqhiry councerning universal grammar

El factor edad en la adquisición del español como lengua extranjera : análisis comparativo entre estudiantes de sexto grado de primaria y universitarios sobre el uso del par preposicional a/ en

Résumé L’hypothèse de la période critique, émise par Lenneberg dans les années 60, affirmait qu’un enfant pouvait acquérir une langue seconde, sans difficulté, environ jusqu’à l’âge de la puberté. Après cette période, l’apprentissage d’un autre idiome serait difficile, dû à la latéralisation du cerveau. En même temps, les travaux de Chomsky enrichirent cette théorie avec l’idée de la Grammaire universelle, laquelle établit que nous possédons tous, dès la naissance, les éléments linguistiques universels qui nous permettent d’acquérir une langue maternelle. Tant que la Grammaire universelle est active, notre langue maternelle se développe et c’est pourquoi, si nous apprenons une autre langue pendant cette période, l’acquisition de celle-ci se produit de manière presque naturelle. Pour cette raison, plus une langue est apprise tôt, plus elle sera maîtrisée avec succès. En nous appuyant sur ce cadre théorique ainsi que sur l’Analyse d’erreurs, outil qui permet au professeur de prédire quelques erreurs avec la finalité de créer des stratégies d’apprentissage d’une langue seconde, nous tenterons de vérifier dans le présent travail si l’âge est un facteur qui influence positivement ou négativement l’apprentissage d’une langue seconde, l’espagnol dans ce cas-ci, par le biais de l’analyse comparative des prépositions a/ en dans deux groupes d’étudiants différents.

Le langage humain est-il une adaptation biologique? : un regard critique sur une explication adaptationniste

Pinker et Bloom (1990), deux représentants de la psychologie évolutionniste, soutiennent que le langage est une adaptation biologique ayant pour fonction la communication. Ils prétendent ainsi jeter un éclairage sur l’origine et l’évolution du langage. Le présent mémoire propose une analyse critique de leur argumentation, et ce, du point de vue de la philosophie de la biologie. D’une part, il tente de dissiper la confusion entourant la conception du langage adoptée par Pinker et Bloom, afin de mieux définir le trait censé constituer une adaptation biologique. Ce faisant, ce mémoire fait ressortir certains présupposés de leur conception du langage et en souligne l’aspect problématique. En ce sens, les concepts d’innéité, de modularité, de grammaire universelle et de systématicité sont abordés de façon critique. D’autre part, ce travail entend expliciter un concept clé de l’argumentation de Pinker et Bloom : celui d’adaptation. L’analyse montre que l’opposition entre adaptationnisme et anti-adaptationnisme tient, dans le cas présent, à une divergence quant à la façon de définir l’adaptation biologique. Une distinction importante doit être faite entre une adaptation résultant exclusivement de la sélection naturelle dans un contexte fonctionnel particulier et une adaptation qui n’exclut pas a priori d’autres facteurs évolutifs, dont l’exaptation. Dans la mesure où l’argumentation de Pinker et Bloom conduit à affirmer que le langage constitue une adaptation seulement au deuxième sens du terme, ce mémoire montre qu’ils ne sont pas à même de rendre compte de l’origine du langage.

Subject-to-subject raising and the syntax of tense in L2 Spanish: a full access approach

This paper investigates the acquisition of syntax in L2 grammars. We tested adult L2 speakers of Spanish (English L1) on the feature specification of T(ense), which is different in English and Spanish in so-called subject-to-subject raising structures. We present experimental results with the verb parecer “to seem/to appear” in different tenses, with and without experiencers, and with Tense Phrase (TP), verb phrase (vP) and Adjectival Phrase (AP) complements. The results show that advanced L2 learners can perform just like native Spanish speakers regarding grammatical knowledge in this domain, although the subtle differences between both languages are not explicitly taught. We argue that these results support Full Access approaches to Universal Grammar (UG) in L2 acquisition, by providing evidence that uninterpretable syntactic features can be learned in adult L2, even when such features are not directly instantiated in the same grammatical domain in the L1 grammar.

What does current generative theory have to say about the explicit-implicit debate?

Taking a generative perspective, we divide aspects of language into three broad categories: those that cannot be learned (are inherent in Universal Grammar), those that are derived from Universal Grammar, and those that must be learned from the input. Using this framework of language to clarify the “what” of learning, we take the acquisition of null (and overt) subjects in languages like Spanish as an example of how to apply the framework. We demonstrate what properties of a null-subject grammar cannot be learned explicitly, which properties can, but also argue that it is an open empirical question as to whether these latter properties are learned using explicit processes, showing how linguistic and psychological approaches may intersect to better understand acquisition.

A expressão do FOXP2 : uma introdução ao estudo das relações entre genes e linguagem

A aquisição da linguagem é um processo invariavelmente dependente da exposição ao ambiente. Contudo, a mais famosa e controversa hipótese desenvolvida por Chomsky sustenta que a criança traz para o processo de aprendizagem da língua um conjunto de recursos específicos – a Gramática Universal – para superar a pobreza de estímulos do ambiente e construir uma gramática final adequada, composta por princípios universais e parâmetros fixados de acordo com a experiência na comunidade lingüística. A Gramática Universal é, assim, entendida como uma dotação genética, necessária, mas não suficiente, para a aquisição da linguagem. Para além da hipótese do inatismo – central à tradição gerativista – a relação entre genes e linguagem vem sendo investigada há muitos anos, com evidências significativas de transmissão hereditária e etiologia genética para diversos tipos de distúrbios de linguagem. Mais recentemente, em 2001, foi descoberto o primeiro caso de um gene, o FOXP2, implicado na habilidade de adquirir e desenvolver a fala e a linguagem. Este trabalho parte de uma introdução ao processo de aquisição da linguagem em uma perspectiva inatista (Capítulo I) para enfocar os aspectos centrais à organização biológica da faculdade da linguagem (Capítulo II), propondo, a partir da análise dos efeitos da mutação do gene FOXP2, uma discussão introdutória sobre como o estudo dos distúrbios do desenvolvimento da linguagem, avaliados a partir de suas características fenotípica e genotípica, pode contribuir para a exploração de questões fundamentais acerca do desenvolvimento lingüístico e cognitivo (Capítulo III).

Auto-Emergencia de Comunicación Sintáctica en Entornos Estáticos y Dinámicos para Grupos de Robots mediante Evolución Gramatical y Aprendizaje por Refuerzo

La idea de dotar a un grupo de robots o agentes artificiales de un lenguaje ha sido objeto de intenso estudio en las ultimas décadas. Como no podía ser de otra forma los primeros intentos se enfocaron hacia el estudio de la emergencia de vocabularios compartidos convencionalmente por el grupo de robots. Las ventajas que puede ofrecer un léxico común son evidentes, como también lo es que un lenguaje con una estructura más compleja, en la que se pudieran combinar palabras, sería todavía más beneficioso. Surgen así algunas propuestas enfocadas hacia la emergencia de un lenguaje consensuado que muestre una estructura sintáctica similar al lenguaje humano, entre las que se encuentra este trabajo. Tomar el lenguaje humano como modelo supone adoptar algunas de las hipótesis y teorías que disciplinas como la filosofía, la psicología o la lingüística entre otras se han encargado de proponer. Según estas aproximaciones teóricas el lenguaje presenta una doble dimension formal y funcional. En base a su dimensión formal parece claro que el lenguaje sigue unas reglas, por lo que el uso de una gramática se ha considerado esencial para su representación, pero también porque las gramáticas son un dispositivo muy sencillo y potente que permite generar fácilmente estructuras simbólicas. En cuanto a la dimension funcional se ha tenido en cuenta la teoría quizá más influyente de los últimos tiempos, que no es otra que la Teoría de los Actos del Habla. Esta teoría se basa en la idea de Wittgenstein por la que el significado reside en el uso del lenguaje, hasta el punto de que éste se entiende como una manera de actuar y de comportarse, en definitiva como una forma de vida. Teniendo presentes estas premisas en esta tesis se pretende experimentar con modelos computacionales que permitan a un grupo de robots alcanzar un lenguaje común de manera autónoma, simplemente mediante interacciones individuales entre los robots, en forma de juegos de lenguaje. Para ello se proponen tres modelos distintos de lenguaje: • Un modelo basado en gramáticas probabilísticas y aprendizaje por refuerzo en el que las interacciones y el uso del lenguaje son claves para su emergencia y que emplea una gramática generativa estática y diseñada de antemano. Este modelo se aplica a dos grupos distintos: uno formado exclusivamente por robots y otro que combina robots y un humano, de manera que en este segundo caso se plantea un aprendizaje supervisado por humanos. • Un modelo basado en evolución gramatical que permite estudiar no solo el consenso sintáctico, sino también cuestiones relativas a la génesis del lenguaje y que emplea una gramática universal a partir de la cual los robots pueden evolucionar por sí mismos la gramática más apropiada según la situación lingüística que traten en cada momento. • Un modelo basado en evolución gramatical y aprendizaje por refuerzo que toma aspectos de los anteriores y amplia las posibilidades de los robots al permitir desarrollar un lenguaje que se adapta a situaciones lingüísticas dinámicas que pueden cambiar en el tiempo y también posibilita la imposición de restricciones de orden muy frecuentes en las estructuras sintácticas complejas. Todos los modelos implican un planteamiento descentralizado y auto-organizado, de manera que ninguno de los robots es el dueño del lenguaje y todos deben cooperar y colaborar de forma coordinada para lograr el consenso sintáctico. En cada caso se plantean experimentos que tienen como objetivo validar los modelos propuestos, tanto en lo relativo al éxito en la emergencia del lenguaje como en lo relacionado con cuestiones paralelas de importancia, como la interacción hombre-máquina o la propia génesis del lenguaje. ABSTRACT The idea of giving a language to a group of robots or artificial agents has been the subject of intense study in recent decades. The first attempts have focused on the development and emergence of a conventionally shared vocabulary. The advantages that can provide a common vocabulary are evident and therefore a more complex language that combines words would be even more beneficial. Thus some proposals are put forward towards the emergence of a consensual language with a sintactical structure in similar terms to the human language. This work follows this trend. Taking the human language as a model means taking some of the assumptions and theories that disciplines such as philosophy, psychology or linguistics among others have provided. According to these theoretical positions language has a double formal and functional dimension. Based on its formal dimension it seems clear that language follows rules, so that the use of a grammar has been considered essential for representation, but also because grammars are a very simple and powerful device that easily generates these symbolic structures. As for the functional dimension perhaps the most influential theory of recent times, the Theory of Speech Acts has been taken into account. This theory is based on the Wittgenstein’s idea about that the meaning lies in the use of language, to the extent that it is understood as a way of acting and behaving. Having into account these issues this work implements some computational models in order to test if they allow a group of robots to reach in an autonomous way a shared language by means of individual interaction among them, that is by means of language games. Specifically, three different models of language for robots are proposed: • A reinforcement learning based model in which interactions and language use are key to its emergence. This model uses a static probabilistic generative grammar which is designed beforehand. The model is applied to two different groups: one formed exclusively by robots and other combining robots and a human. Therefore, in the second case the learning process is supervised by the human. • A model based on grammatical evolution that allows us to study not only the syntactic consensus, but also the very genesis of language. This model uses a universal grammar that allows robots to evolve for themselves the most appropriate grammar according to the current linguistic situation they deal with. • A model based on grammatical evolution and reinforcement learning that takes aspects of the previous models and increases their possibilities. This model allows robots to develop a language in order to adapt to dynamic language situations that can change over time and also allows the imposition of syntactical order restrictions which are very common in complex syntactic structures. All models involve a decentralized and self-organized approach so that none of the robots is the language’s owner and everyone must cooperate and work together in a coordinated manner to achieve syntactic consensus. In each case experiments are presented in order to validate the proposed models, both in terms of success about the emergence of language and it relates to the study of important parallel issues, such as human-computer interaction or the very genesis of language.

The Processing of Preposition-Stranding Constructions in English

One of the prominent questions in modern psycholinguistics is the relationship between the grammar and the parser. Within the approach of Generative Grammar, this issue has been investigated in terms of the role that Principles of Universal Grammar may play in language processing. The aim of this research experiment is to investigate this topic. Specifically, this experiment aims to test whether the Minimal Structure Principle (MSP) plays a role in the processing of Preposition-Stranding versus Pied-Piped Constructions. This investigation is made with a self-paced reading task, an on-line processing test that measures participants’ unconscious reaction to language stimuli. Monolingual English speakers’ reading times of sentences with Preposition-Stranding and Pied-Piped Constructions are compared. Results indicate that neither construction has greater processing costs, suggesting that factors other than the MSP are active during language processing.

The royal universal British grammar and vocabulary. Being a digestion of the entire English language into its proper parts of speech ... In a method entirely new. ...

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Euclid + Lincoln = Kent; A + B = C; Universal Formula : Grammar of nature or key to the master mind .

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The universal preceptor: being a general grammar of arts, sciences, and useful knowledge ...

Mode of access: Internet.