Épistémologie du risque : la troisième voie d'Ulrich Beck et son influence sur la doctrine environnementaliste

"En 1986, était publiée la première édition en langue originale de La Société du risque du sociologue et philosophe allemand Ulrich Beck. Un quart de siècle après cette édition séminale et dix ans après sa première parution en français, il semble pertinent de jauger dans quelle mesure cet ouvrage, l’un des plus importants dans le champ des sciences sociales de ces vingt dernières années, a pu ou non influencer la doctrine juridique en particulier, celle consacrée au droit de l’environnement. En effet, Ulrich Beck, dont les réflexions s’inscrivent dans le sillage des préoccupations écologiques contemporaines, prit les risques environnementaux comme point de départ de sa théorie. Dans le cadre limité de cette introduction, il s’agira de se pencher exclusivement sur les tensions épistémologiques traversant les analyses orientées vers la gestion du risque. Sur ce point, Ulrich Beck a développé une pensée originale, traçant ce que l’on pourrait qualifier de troisième voie entre les options réalistes d’une part, constructivistes d’autre part, options que l’on observe généralement dans la littérature de sciences sociales consacrée au risque et à sa gestion. Après cette présentation succincte, cette contribution constatera le peu d’influence que l’analyse produite par Ulrich Beck présente dans le champ des études juridiques relatives au droit de l’environnement. Plusieurs hypothèses explicatives de cette absence seront avancées. Surtout, il s’agira de regretter le peu d’ancrage épistémologique de la plupart des travaux juridiques portant sur l’environnement ; en particulier, le potentiel d’une réflexion environnementaliste fondée sur une approche davantage constructiviste du risque sera brièvement exploré."

Ulrich Beck's cosmopolitanisation thesis : a philosophical critique

For Ulrich Beck, the Enlightenment project aimed to subordinate religious truth to the authority of reason in questions of the true and the good, and thus to replace religious conflict with peace. Although the ‘First Modernity’ delivered risks like climate change rather than progress like peace, Beck discerns signs of hope for the Enlightenment project in the processes of individualisation and cosmopolitanisation. I argue, first, that Beck exaggerates his claims about the relative influence of tradition on religion and reason; second, that his cosmopolitanisation thesis fails to identify triggers for a paradigm conversion; third, that the thesis relies upon essentialist commitments of the kind he condemns; and finally, that only the classicist view of essentialism is vulnerable to his attack.

A continuidade contemporânea do pensamento de Georg Simmel: a compreensão da dinâmica conflitiva e dos fluxos nos processos de individualização na primeira modernidade e suas consequências sócio-culturais na modernidade reflexiva de Ulrich Beck

This thesis attempts to comprehend, through the work of Georg Simmel and Ulrich Beck, two distinct phases of modernity through the concept of individualism and individualization processes arising therefrom. A substantial formulation of the concept that remits to the conceptual transposition unscathed from one reality to another is not the main focus of this study. This is about, in advance, two distinct realities, conceptual and comparative examination that aims to weave the points pertaining to echoes - internalized and modified according to the complexity of the historical premises - the thought of Simmel in theoretical perspective of Beck. The forms can be characterized as individualism according to the socio-philosophical mores of Simmel in the intention to understand the forms assumed by individualism in modern history, as well as the derived individualization processes sustained by individual law. Therewith, is intended to transpose the optical analysis of contemporary Ulrich Beck and reap, through conceptual analysis, the points that refer to the influence and continuity of thought of Georg Simmel

A influência de Georg Simmel no pensamento social de Ulrich Beck: pela compreensão do conflito no individualismo e nos processos de individualização

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Desafios da sociedade de risco global: Ulrich Beck e um cosmopolitismo para o século XXI

Como em nenhuma época anterior da história, o início do século XXI encontra-se perante desafios que colocam em causa tanto a sobrevivência humana como a do próprio planeta Terra. A característica principal desses desafios é a sua dimensão planetária, o que faz com que Ulrich Beck designe a sociedade actual como Sociedade de Risco Global. Segundo Beck, a solução para os problemas da Sociedade de Risco Global passa por um esforço de cooperação internacional por parte das instituições políticas e por uma releitura do conceito de Cosmopolitismo como elemento de uma nova cultura política. Neste artigo, pretendemos expor a forma como Beck adopta o conceito de Cosmopolitismo adaptado à realidade dos desafios do século XXI.

Modernidade reflexiva: Giddens, Beck e as limitações da segunda modernidade

Este trabalho objetiva expor a teoria da modernidade reflexiva elaborada de forma mais precisa por Ulrich Beck e Anthony Giddens, buscando compreender os contornos de tal proposta e seus possíveis limites. Para tanto buscamos contextualizar o debate dentro de um quadro mais amplo para conseguirmos nossos objetivos.

Mapping the territory of economic risk

It is widely contended that we live in a „world risk society‟, where risk plays a central and ubiquitous role in contemporary social life. A seminal contributor to this view is Ulrich Beck, who claims that our world is governed by dangers that cannot be calculated or insured against. For Beck, risk is an inherently unrestrained phenomenon, emerging from a core and pouring out from and under national borders, unaffected by state power. Beck‟s focus on risk's ubiquity and uncontrollability at an infra-global level means that there is a necessary evenness to the expanse of risk: a "universalization of hazards‟, which possess an inbuilt tendency towards globalisation. While sociological scholarship has examined the reach and impact of globalisation processes on the role and power of states, Beck‟s argument that economic risk is without territory and resistant to domestic policy has come under less appraisal. This is contestable: what are often described as global economic processes, on closer inspection, reveal degrees of territorial embeddedness. This not only suggests that "global‟ flows could sometimes be more appropriately explained as international, regional or even local processes, formed from and responsive to state strategies – but also demonstrates what can be missed if we overinflate the global. This paper briefly introduces two key principles of Beck's theory of risk society and positions them within a review of literature debating the novelty and degree of global economic integration and its impact on states pursuing domestic economic policies. In doing so, this paper highlights the value for future research to engage with questions such as "is economic risk really without territory‟ and "does risk produce convergence‟, not so much as a means of reducing Beck's thesis to a purely empirical analysis, but rather to avoid limiting our scope in understanding the complex relationship between risk and state.

Suppressed democracy in China : theoretical rationalisation using a cosmopolitan methodology

The intention of this work is to explain theoretically that democracy logically exists in China, despite the statements to the contrary by China’s ruling party. We will have to look at several recent developments in social and political theory to fully understand my point. The first involves recent findings in the historical analysis of democracy from thinkers like Keane (2009), Isakhan and Stockwell (2011). The second deals with cosmopolitan theory and 2nd modernity, or from the works of David Held (2003), Ulrich Beck and Edgar Grande (2010) respectively. Finally, the third is a recent work of mine titled “Democratic Theory and Theoretical Physics” (2010).

The social foundations of risk

Ulrich Beck's argument about risk society emphasises, among other things, the pervasiveness of risk. As a feature of the human condition in the contemporary, globalised, world that distinguishes the present from the past, risk is widespread across society and affects all social strata. While Beck has gestured towards the irregular distribution of contemporary risks, nonetheless he has suggested that traditional structural entities – class and wealth – no longer provide the key interpretive frameworks for the calculation of susceptibility. In short, the tentacles of risk are long and almost no one is out of reach. Yet, while the risk society thesis has generated a large theoretical literature, there is very little in the way of research that marries theorising to original data collection. This paper represents an attempt to address this gap by using empirical data to investigate whether risk is more textured than Beck's account suggests. Focusing on health as a domain of risk, the paper uses data from a national sample survey of the Australian electorate to investigate the extent to which social divisions structure perceptions of risk within the general population. The findings suggest that various aspects of social stratification, such as income, occupation and education, do indeed play a role in shaping perceptions of risk.

Reason of state and a new notion of fortune : Historicising the risk society

Since the 1980s the concept of risk has produced a large and diverse volume of sociological research. Ulrich Beck’s groundbreaking risk society thesis provides a particularly engaging contribution, since it seems that nearly every sociological account of risk engages with this work. For Beck, we are living in second modernity – a new epoch that breaks with pre-modernity and industrial society due to the centrality, incalculability and reflexivity of globalised risk. While Beck’s theory is compelling, a reading of other theorists such as Foucault (2007[1978]) and Hacking (1975,1990) suggests that a difficulty with Beck’s work is that in attempting to explain what is novel about risk in contemporary times, he too quickly passes over the complexities and ruptures of historical change that impact on the history and contingency of risk. This paper begins by presenting a brief analysis of the present state of risk by introducing Beck’s historical narrative of risk from pre-modernity to the risk society; it then outlines the challenges with the “risk as epoch” argument by considering a range of literature, which suggests risk has a more complex history than proposed by Beck; and finally it highlights the value in examining strategies of statecraft in early modern Europe, specifically Machiavelli’s The Prince (2008[1513]) and Giovanni Botero’s political treatise, Della Ragion di Stato (1956[1589]) – as a means of more thoroughly understanding how our current concept of risk emerges. In doing so, this paper seeks to open up new trajectories in the historicisation of risk for other interested scholars.

The Unable Individual : The Actantial Analyses of Three Chinese Films and Discussion on Their Representations of the Individual’s Position in Contemporary Chinese Society

The thesis studies three contemporary Chinese films, Incense (Xianghuo 2003), Beijing Bicycle (Shiqi sui de danche, 2001), and South of the Clouds (Yun de nanfang, 2004). The aim of the thesis is to find out how these films represent the individual, his relationships with others, and his possibilities in society. The films all portray a male individual setting out to pursue a goal, facing one obstacle after the other in the process, and in the end failing to achieve his goal. The other characters in the films are also primarily either unable or unwilling to help the lead character. In the thesis these features of the films are analysed by applying A.J. Greimas’s structuralist semiotic theory about the actantial structure of discourses. The questions about the individual’s position are answered by defining which instances in the films actually represent the actantial positions of the sender, receiver, subject, object, helper and opponent. The results of the actantial analyses of the three films are further discussed in the light of theories regarding individualization. The focus is on the theories of Ulrich Beck, Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim and Zygmunt Bauman, who see a development towards individualization in societies following the disintegration of traditional social structures. For the most part, these theories do seem to be applicable to the films’ representations of the individual’s position, especially regarding the increased responsibility of the individual. For example, the position of the family is represented as either insignificant or negative in all of the films, which fits with the description of the individualized society, contradicting the idea of traditional Chinese society. On the other hand, the identities and goals of the characters in the films are not represented as fragmented in the way the theories would suggest.

Violências na contemporaneidade: etnografia de redes sociotécnicas na Cidade de Chapecó (SC)

O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os dispositivos que permitem instituir a "violência" na contemporaneidade como uma questão constituinte e mobilizadora de coletivos (para o seu estudo, o seu combate, a sua divulgação, proteção frente à mesma, atendimento às suas vítimas e atendimento ou punição a seus agentes), na cidade de Chapecó. Para esta finalidade, foram utilizados princípios, regras e propriedades metodológicas da Teoria do Ator-Rede, concebida por Bruno Latour, John Law e Michel Callon, que guiaram a etnografia realizada; a Teoria da Sociedade Global de Riscos, proposta por Ulrich Beck, que permitiu compreender configurações contemporâneas; e noções de Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze e Felix Guattari que possibilitaram focar processos vinculados às gestões das violências, como a mídia e as tecnologias de vigilância e controle. A violência foi constituída como um artefato da pesquisa e conduziu ao conhecimento dos vários sentidos tomados no espaço de sua circulação. No lugar de tomar uma definição a priori para relacioná-la ao empírico, o estudo optou por uma forma de compreendê-la, com base nos referenciais escolhidos: não como causa, mas como efeito, configurando redes sociotécnicas que articulam diferentes elementos; não um reservatório que forneceria automaticamente uma explicação, mas o resultado final de um processo, que envolve mediadores em sua fabricação. A pesquisa foi realizada em Chapecó, cidade de porte médio, localizada no Oeste de Santa Catarina, diferenciando-se dos grandes centros urbanos, nos quais as violências vêm sendo predominantemente estudadas. O trabalho de campo englobou diferentes momentos (2004, 2005 e 2006) e trilhou diferentes caminhos para a coleta de indicadores. O primeiro investigando histórias da cidade e região com ênfase nos estudos referentes a situações que ficaram marcadas como violentas. O segundo observando a cidade como um todo, tendo em vista eventos, atores e coletivos que se constituíram vinculados à categoria violência. O terceiro focando e descrevendo cinco eventos contemporâneos específicos vinculados às práticas violentas, à gestão das violências, à produção de segurança e à mídia escrita de Chapecó. A amplitude e a diversidade, abrangidas pela etnografia, evidenciaram que as configurações das práticas violentas se constituem conectadas aos processos de inscrição dessas práticas, aos processos de tradução das categorias que as definem e as estratégias de gestão das violências, que implicam em tecnologias de vigilância e controle. As múltiplas entradas para abordar o tema fizeram ressoar as misturas que envolvem a sua discussão, a infinitude de variáveis em jogo e a multiplicidade que compõe as violências. Os eventos estudados tornaram perceptível a trama de redes que constituem a violência no município, redes que disputam e fazem alianças, conectando uma diversidade de actantes que as fabricam cotidianamente. Dessa forma, a violência não deve ser delegada a alguns atores apenas, mas pode ser compreendida como efeito de redes sociotécnicas extensas que articulam diferentes actantes, a partir dos vínculos que os ligam, da tradução dos interesses que os unem e dos traços que inscrevem os seus deslocamentos.

Encostas, extremos climáticos e riscos: um estudo da irresponsabilidade organizada nas ocupações irregulares na Região Serrana do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.

A hipótese de doutoramento aqui proposta consiste na necessidade teórica de repensar o conceito de irresponsabilidade organizada, oriundo da obra do sociólogo alemão Ulrich Beck, a partir da realidade do Município de Teresópolis, localizado na Região Serrana do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, cenário de uma tragédia ocorrida em janeiro de 2011. Serão ainda considerados os debates envolvendo a revogação do segundo Código Florestal pela Lei 12.651/2012, especialmente os relativos às áreas de preservação permanente nos topos de morro, faixas marginais de proteção e encostas com declividade superior a 45 graus. A hipótese da presente tese é que o conceito de irresponsabilidade organizada seja repensado diante da necessidade de explicar a organização jurídica de riscos reconhecidos a partir de processos políticos. Inclui-se na hipótese a análise de situações nas quais, mesmo ante a existência de normas jurídicas validamente editadas e aplicáveis, persiste a omissão na gerência dos riscos por elas disciplinados. A pesquisa trabalhará com a análise crítica da teoria da sociedade de risco e do conceito em questão, considerando estudos, relatórios e demais documentos referentes à tragédia teresopolitana e à edição da atual legislação florestal.