Brytmånens utformning vid trädfällning - Jämförande studier av böjmotstånd och gångjärnseffekt : Designing felling hinge in tree felling - Comparative studies of bending resistance and hinge effect

Vid trädfällning med motorsåg sparar man en så kallad brytmån som skall fungera som ett gång¬järn när trädet fälls. Om brytmånen går av tidigt finns en risk att trädet faller okontrolle¬rat. De rekommendationer som finns säger att brytmånens bredd skall göras proportionell mot trädets diameter. Genom att teoretiskt och praktiskt undersöka vilka krafter brytmånen utsätts för och vad den håller för har det varit möjligt att dra vissa slutsatser om hur en bra brytmån skall se ut. Ett viktigt resultat är att en bred brytmån (över 30-40 mm) är mycket trög att böja och inte fungerar i det avseendet att den går av redan vid små böjningar. Teoretiska be¬räkningar och praktiska försök visar att en relativt smal brytmån håller för belastningen vid rakt motlut även på stora träd. Som ny rekommendationen föreslås att brytmånens bredd inte bör vara mer än 30 mm. Av försöken kan man också dra slutsatsen att frusen ved är stel och brister tidigt, varför svår¬fällda träd inte bör fällas när veden är fryst.A felling hinge is used when felling trees by help of chain saw. If the hinge breaks early in the fall of the tree there is a great risk that the tree will fall without control. Present recommenda¬tions in Sweden say that the thickness of the felling hinge shall be made in proportion to the stem diameter. By use of theoretical and practical examinations of the forces stressing the felling hinge, and the strength of the wood itself, it has been possible to draw conclusions regarding the correct design of a felling hinge. One important result is that a thick felling hinge (over 30-40 mm) is very hard to bend and does not work well as it looses most of its strength already at a small forward bending angel. Theoretical calculations and practical tests show that a relatively narrow felling hinge will manage very well the forces when felling trees with lean opposite to the felling direction even for large trees. Our new recommendation is that the thickness of the felling hinge in normal Swedish conditions should not exceed 30 mm. Through the studies it can also be seen that frozen, brittle wood breaks at small bending angels. For that reason particularly difficult trees not should be felled when the wood is frozen.

Kraftutveckling för manuella trädfällningsredskap : Force development for manual tree felling tools

The objective with this study has been to build general models of the mechanics in tree felling with chain-saw and to compare felling torque for different tools. The theoretical models are completed and validated with a comparative study. The study includes a great number of felling tools of which some are used with different methods. Felling torque was measured using a naturally like measuring arrangement where a tree is cut at about 3.7 m height and then anchored with a dynamometer to a tree opposite to the felling direction. Notch and felling cut was made as ordinary with exception that the hinge was made extra thin to reduce bending resistance. The tree was consequently not felled during the trials and several combinations of felling tools and individuals could be used on the same tree.The results show big differences between tools, methods and persons. The differences were, however, not general, but could vary depending on conditions (first of all tree diameters). Tools and methods that push or pull on the stem are little affected by the size of the tree, while tools that press on the stump are very much dependent of a large stump-diameter. Hand force asserted on a simple pole is consequently a powerful tool on small trees. For trees of medium size there are several alternative methods with different sizes and brands of felling levers and wedges. Larger and more ungainly tools and methods like tree pusher, winch, etc. develop very high felling torque on all tree sizes. On large trees also the felling wedge and especially the use of several wedges together develop very high felling torque.

Bark and ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera : Scolytidae) responses to volatiles from aging loblolly pine billets

Many species of bark and ambrosia beetles use host volatiles as cues for breeding site location. In a study where the objectives were to identify the different volatiles released by Pinus taeda L. billets as they age, to determine the arrival sequence of scolytids (Colcoptera: Scolytidae), and to correlate volatile emission by the billets with beetle catches, 25 species of scolytids were trapped. Bark beetles were more attracted to the billets in the beginning of the period. whereas ambrosia beetles arrived later. Among the bark beetles, Dendroctonus terebrans (Olivier) was significantly more attracted during the Ist 3 wk after tree felling, Hylastes tenuis Eichhoff in the Ist 2 wk. Pityophtorus pulicarius (Zimmermann) in weeks 2 and 3, and Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff) was more attracted on weeks 3 and 4. Among the ambrosia beetles, Xyleborinus saxeseni (Ratzeburg) was more attracted to billets during weeks 4-6, whereas Xyleborus pubescens Zimmermann and Xyleborus californicus Wood were more attracted during week 6. The billets showed marked decline in attractiveness to all scolytids after 8 wk. Volatiles collected during the beetle trapping periods included 15 hydrocarbon monoterpenes, 18 oxygenated monoterpenes, 4-allylanisole, and ethanol. The hydrocarbon monoterpenes and 4-allylanisole decreased sharply over time, but oxygenated monoterpenes and ethanol increased up to weeks 4-6, after which they also decreased. Good correlations between certain billet volatiles and catches for some beetle species were obtained, but their biological significance could not be determined.

Human disturbance and forest diversity in the Tansa Valley, India

We assessed the diversity of woody plants at 15 forested sites in the Tansa Valley of Thane District, in Maharashtra, India. The fewest species (11) were seen at a degraded mangrove site near the river mouth, and the greatest number (150) in the rich semi-evergreen forest on Tungar Hill. For all sites there were 141 tree, 25 shrub and 15 liana species, a total of 181 species. Excluding the mangrove site, which had no species in common with the other 14 sites, we analyzed the species distributions in detail. 2 These sites ranged in area from 4 to 30 km each, had woody floras of 89 6 6 species, and varied in intensity of human impact. Despite a history of exploitation and substantial reduction in biomass from firewood collecting, set fires and illicit tree felling, considerable plant diversity remains in the area.We found a modest increase in species richness in transects away from two villages. We observed the exploitation of the forest by the principal users, primarily of the Warli Tribe. They exploited a wide variety of forest resources (92 species), for medicines, foods, construction materials, household goods, manure and other purposes. They collected 15 items for sale. By far the single most important item collected was firewood, which dramatically reduced forest biomass within 2 km of villages. The species distributions in these forest remnants are strongly nested, mostly due to varying degrees of disturbance at individual sites. The high species diversity on Tungar Hill is most likely a relict of the earlier character of forests throughout much of the valley. It merits the highest priorities for preservation, as a refuge for Western Ghat species at the northern limits of their distributions.

The long-term effects of whole-tree harvest at final felling on soil properties in a Norway Spruce (Picea Abies (L) Karst.) Stand

Increased demand for forest-derived biomass has resulted in changes in harvest intensities in Finland. Conventional stem-only harvest (CH) has to some extent been replaced with whole-tree harvest (WTH). The latter involves a greater removal of nutrients from the forest ecosystem, as all the above ground biomass is exported from the site. This has raised concerns that WTH could result in large changes in the nutrient dynamics of a forest stand and could eventually lower its site productivity. Little empirical data exists to support this assumption as only a limited number of studies have been conducted on the topic. A majority of these discuss the short-term effects, thus the long-term consequences remain unknown. The objective of this study was to compare differences in soil properties after CH and WTH in a fertile Norway spruce (Picea abies (L) Karst.) stand in Southern Finland. The site was clear-felled in August 2000 and spruce seedlings were planted in the following summer. Soil sampling in the form of systematic randomized sampling was carried out in May 2011. Changes in base saturation, cation exchange capacity, elemental pools (total and exchangeable) and acidity were studied in both organic and mineral horizons. The results indicate that WTH lowered effective cation exchange capacity and base saturation particularly in the humus layer. The pools of exchangeable Al and Fe were increased in the humus layer, whereas the amount of exchangeable Ca decreased in both layers. WTH also resulted in lower Ca/Al-ratios across the sampled layers. Treatment did not have a significant effect on pH, total pools of elements or on the C/N-ratio of the soil. The results suggest that although the stand possesses significant pools of nutrients at present, WTH, if continued, could have long-term effects on site productivity.

Regeneration of five commercially-valuable tree species after experimental logging in an Amazonian forest

This study investigated the regeneration variation of five commercially valuable tree species in relation to different intensities of felling in fourteen 4-ha plots in an area under experimental forest management. This experiment was carried out in a typical Amazonian tropical forest sample on "terra-firme," in Manaus (AM). Plots were logged 7 and 8 years (1987 and 1988), or 3 years (1993) before the study. All trees with height greater than 2 m, and diameter at breast height (DBH) smaller than 10 cm were measured. Only Aniba hostmanniana, Ocotea aciphylla, Licaria pachycarpa, Eschweilera coriacea and Goupia glabra were sufficiently common for individual analyses. These species have high timber values in the local market. Eight years after logging, the species responded differently to logging intensities. The numbers of individuals of Goupia glabra and Aniba hostmanniana were positively related to the intensity of logging, while Ocotea aciphylla, Licaria pachycarpa, and Eschweilera coriacea showed no statistically significant response. In the most recently (1993) logged areas, Goupia glabra and Aniba hostmanniana had higher numbers of individuals than the control plots.

Regeneration in felling gaps after logging in Acre state, Western Amazon.

Regeneration of tree species in felling gaps were studied during the first two years following harvesting in a tropical forest in Acre state, Brazil. Felling gaps averaged 340 m2 in size, while canopy openings averaged 17%. Seedling mortality in adjacent undisturbed forest was 4.6% yr', and 59.6% yr·1 and 100% yr' in the crown and trunk zones respectively, two years after logging. Recruitment of new seedlings inthe undisturbed forest understorey averaged 462 plants ha' yr', two years after gap creation. Inthe crown zones of the gaps, recruitment of seedlings averaged 1350 ha' yr', and in the trunk zones 1392 ha' yr'. The entire seedling community in trunk zones after logging was composed of new recruits. lhere was a tendency for seedling growth rates to increase from the natural forest (0,21cm yr-1) to the crown zone (0.40cm yr'), Before gap creation, species richness and diversity and seedling density were quite similar. After gap creation a sharp decrease could be verified in the gap.zones, however the differences between gap and undisturbed forest decreased rapidly in the second year after gap creation. lhe regeneration of commercial species was not affected by gap creation apart from the increase in growth rates.

De Novo Assembly And Transcriptome Analysis Of The Rubber Tree (hevea Brasiliensis) And Snp Markers Development For Rubber Biosynthesis Pathways.

Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. Ex Adr. Juss.) Muell.-Arg. is the primary source of natural rubber that is native to the Amazon rainforest. The singular properties of natural rubber make it superior to and competitive with synthetic rubber for use in several applications. Here, we performed RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of H. brasiliensis bark on the Illumina GAIIx platform, which generated 179,326,804 raw reads on the Illumina GAIIx platform. A total of 50,384 contigs that were over 400 bp in size were obtained and subjected to further analyses. A similarity search against the non-redundant (nr) protein database returned 32,018 (63%) positive BLASTx hits. The transcriptome analysis was annotated using the clusters of orthologous groups (COG), gene ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and Pfam databases. A search for putative molecular marker was performed to identify simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). In total, 17,927 SSRs and 404,114 SNPs were detected. Finally, we selected sequences that were identified as belonging to the mevalonate (MVA) and 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathways, which are involved in rubber biosynthesis, to validate the SNP markers. A total of 78 SNPs were validated in 36 genotypes of H. brasiliensis. This new dataset represents a powerful information source for rubber tree bark genes and will be an important tool for the development of microsatellites and SNP markers for use in future genetic analyses such as genetic linkage mapping, quantitative trait loci identification, investigations of linkage disequilibrium and marker-assisted selection.

Leaf-, Panel- And Latex-expressed Sequenced Tags From The Rubber Tree (hevea Brasiliensis) Under Cold-stressed And Suboptimal Growing Conditions: The Development Of Gene-targeted Functional Markers For Stress Response.

Hevea brasiliensis is a native species of the Amazon Basin of South America and the primary source of natural rubber worldwide. Due to the occurrence of South American Leaf Blight disease in this area, rubber plantations have been extended to suboptimal regions. Rubber tree breeding is time-consuming and expensive, but molecular markers can serve as a tool for early evaluation, thus reducing time and costs. In this work, we constructed six different cDNA libraries with the aim of developing gene-targeted molecular markers for the rubber tree. A total of 8,263 reads were assembled, generating 5,025 unigenes that were analyzed; 912 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) represented new transcripts, and two sequences were highly up-regulated by cold stress. These unigenes were scanned for microsatellite (SSR) regions and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). In total, 169 novel EST-SSR markers were developed; 138 loci were polymorphic in the rubber tree, and 98 % presented transferability to six other Hevea species. Locus duplication was observed in H. brasiliensis and other species. Additionally, 43 SNP markers in 13 sequences that showed similarity to proteins involved in stress response, latex biosynthesis and developmental processes were characterized. cDNA libraries are a rich source of SSR and SNP markers and enable the identification of new transcripts. The new markers developed here will be a valuable resource for linkage mapping, QTL identification and other studies in the rubber tree and can also be used to evaluate the genetic variability of other Hevea species, which are valuable assets in rubber tree breeding.

Environmental Controls In The Water Use Patterns Of A Tropical Cloud Forest Tree Species, Drimys Brasiliensis (winteraceae).

Trees from tropical montane cloud forest (TMCF) display very dynamic patterns of water use. They are capable of downwards water transport towards the soil during leaf-wetting events, likely a consequence of foliar water uptake (FWU), as well as high rates of night-time transpiration (Enight) during drier nights. These two processes might represent important sources of water losses and gains to the plant, but little is known about the environmental factors controlling these water fluxes. We evaluated how contrasting atmospheric and soil water conditions control diurnal, nocturnal and seasonal dynamics of sap flow in Drimys brasiliensis (Miers), a common Neotropical cloud forest species. We monitored the seasonal variation of soil water content, micrometeorological conditions and sap flow of D. brasiliensis trees in the field during wet and dry seasons. We also conducted a greenhouse experiment exposing D. brasiliensis saplings under contrasting soil water conditions to deuterium-labelled fog water. We found that during the night D. brasiliensis possesses heightened stomatal sensitivity to soil drought and vapour pressure deficit, which reduces night-time water loss. Leaf-wetting events had a strong suppressive effect on tree transpiration (E). Foliar water uptake increased in magnitude with drier soil and during longer leaf-wetting events. The difference between diurnal and nocturnal stomatal behaviour in D. brasiliensis could be attributed to an optimization of carbon gain when leaves are dry, as well as minimization of nocturnal water loss. The leaf-wetting events on the other hand seem important to D. brasiliensis water balance, especially during soil droughts, both by suppressing tree transpiration (E) and as a small additional water supply through FWU. Our results suggest that decreases in leaf-wetting events in TMCF might increase D. brasiliensis water loss and decrease its water gains, which could compromise its ecophysiological performance and survival during dry periods.

Tree structure and richness in an Atlantic Forest fragment: distance from anthropogenic and natural edges

Approximately 7.2% of the Atlantic rainforest remains in Brazil, with only 16% of this forest remaining in the State of Rio de Janeiro, all of it distributed in fragments. This forest fragmentation can produce biotic and abiotic differences between edges and the fragment interior. In this study, we compared the structure and richness of tree communities in three habitats - an anthropogenic edge (AE), a natural edge (NE) and the fragment interior (FI) - of a fragment of Atlantic forest in the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (22°50'S and 42°28'W). One thousand and seventy-six trees with a diameter at breast height > 4.8 cm, belonging to 132 morphospecies and 39 families, were sampled in a total study area of 0.75 ha. NE had the greatest basal area and the trees in this habitat had the greatest diameter:height allometric coefficient, whereas AE had a lower richness and greater variation in the height of the first tree branch. Tree density, diameter, height and the proportion of standing dead trees did not differ among the habitats. There was marked heterogeneity among replicates within each habitat. These results indicate that the forest interior and the fragment edges (natural or anthropogenic) do not differ markedly considering the studied parameters. Other factors, such as the age from the edge, type of matrix and proximity of gaps, may play a more important role in plant community structure than the proximity from edges.

Mixed rain forest in southeastern Brazil: tree species regeneration and floristic relationships in a remaining stretch of forest near the city of Itaberá, Brazil

The aim of this work was to evaluate the floristic composition, richness, and diversity of the upper and lower strata of a stretch of mixed rain forest near the city of Itaberá, in southeastern Brazil. We also investigated the differences between this conservation area and other stretches of mixed rain forest in southern and southeastern Brazil, as well as other nearby forest formations, in terms of their floristic relationships. For our survey of the upper stratum (diameter at breast height [DBH] > 15 cm), we established 50 permanent plots of 10 × 20 m. Within each of those plots, we designated five, randomly located, 1 × 1 m subplots, in order to survey the lower stratum (total height > 30 cm and DBH < 15 cm). In the upper stratum, we sampled 1429 trees and shrubs, belonging to 134 species, 93 genera, and 47 families. In the lower stratum, we sampled 758 trees and shrubs, belonging to 93 species, 66 genera, and 39 families. In our floristic and phytosociological surveys, we recorded 177 species, belonging to 106 genera and 52 families. The Shannon Diversity Index was 4.12 and 3.5 for the upper and lower strata, respectively. Cluster analysis indicated that nearby forest formations had the strongest floristic influence on the study area, which was therefore distinct from other mixed rain forests in southern Brazil and in the Serra da Mantiqueira mountain range.

Two mistletoes are too many?: Interspecific occurrence of mistletoes on the same host tree

Mistletoe can have a major impact on the fitness of the host plant. If there is more than one species of mistletoe on the same host tree, the overall impact might be amplified. We report the occurrence of more than one species of mistletoe on the same host tree. Although it is not a rule in the field, to our knowledge, there have been no studies of this topic. In most cases, two species of mistletoe were recorded on the same host tree, although we recorded three species of mistletoe on one occasion. This demonstrates that different species of mistletoe can be compatible with the same host species. Therefore, compatibility (structural and physiological) might be an important factor for the occurrence of mistletoe. Recent studies have shown that if the mistletoe does not recognize the host species, the deposited seeds will germinate but the haustorium will not penetrate the host branch. This is probably the primary mechanism in the establishment of more than one species of mistletoe on the same host, which can trigger a cascade of harmful effects for the host species.

Reserve carbohydrates and lipids from the seeds of four tropical tree species with different sensitivity to desiccation

Considering the importance of water content for the conservation and storage of seeds, and the involvement of soluble carbohydrates and lipids for embryo development, a comparative study was carried out among the seeds of Inga vera (ingá), Eugenia uniflora (pitanga), both classified as recalcitrant, and Caesalpinia echinata (brazilwood) and Erythrina speciosa (mulungu), considered as orthodox seeds. Low concentrations of cyclitols (0.3-0.5%), raffinose family oligosaccharides (ca. 0.05%) and unsaturated fatty acids (0-19%) were found in the seeds of ingá and pitanga, while larger amounts of cyclitols (2-3%) and raffinose (4.6-13%) were found in brazilwood and mulungu, respectively. These results, in addition to higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids (53-71%) in orthodox seeds, suggested that sugars and lipids played important role in water movement, protecting the embryo cell membranes against injuries during dehydration.