Le cèdre blanc (Thuja occidentalis)dans le paysage culturel en amont de Montréal au XIXe siècle. Une approche dendroarchéologique

Ce mémoire porte sur le cèdre blanc (Thuja occidentalis) dans les contextes de colonisation et d’exploitation forestière de l’arrière-pays montréalais au XIXe siècle. Il vise, d’une part, à documenter les stratégies d’exploitation locale du cèdre blanc au XIXe siècle et l’évolution du paysage culturel domestique d’un établissement colonial depuis sa concession initiale. D’autre part, ce mémoire cherche à identifier les réseaux d’échanges du cèdre blanc acheminé à Montréal au XIXe siècle pour la construction des bâtiments et des infrastructures portuaires. En raison de la quasi-absence de documents historiques sur le sujet, il devient évident que seule l’application de la dendrochronologie et de la dendroprovenance permet d’atteindre ces objectifs. Nous vous présentons ici l’analyse détaillée de six sites ruraux situés dans les vallées de l’Outaouais et du haut Saint-Laurent. Les analyses dendrochronologiques effectuées permettent d’aborder l’établissement colonial d’une façon originale. La deuxième partie de ce mémoire se consacre aux analyses de dendroprovenance de sept sites montréalais préalablement étudiés par Poudret-Barré (2007) et le Groupe de recherche en dendrochronologie historique (GRDH). Pour ce faire, les sites ruraux discutés précédemment servent de point d’ancrage géographique afin de déterminer l’origine des pièces de cèdre blanc retrouvées à Montréal. L’étude du cèdre blanc et les résultats des analyses de dendrochronologie et de dendroprovenance réalisées dans le cadre de cette étude permettent d’aborder le patrimoine architectural et archéologique sous un angle nouveau. Venant compléter les données historiques disponibles, il ouvre la voie à de nouvelles recherches de ce genre.

Thuja plicata Don. : Der breitzweigige Lebensbaum

anonym

Coniferen - Nadelhölzer : Fruchtschnuppe - Cryptomria japonica - Chamaecyparis lawsoniona - Biota - Cryptomeria japonica - Libocedrus decurrens - Taxus baccata - Thuja occidentalis - Biota orientalis

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崖柏属的系统发育与生物地理学研究－兼论广义柏科4CL基因的进化

第三纪末期和第四纪的气候变冷使广泛分布于北半球的暖温带/亚热带生物区系的分布区破碎化，形成了各种洲际间断分布格局。其中东亚—北美东部间断分布最为常见，自林奈时代起就吸引了植物学家们的关注。为了探讨这一地理分布格局的形成过程，前人开展了大量的研究工作，包括间断类群分布的比较、种间关系的经典分类学和化学分类学研究、地理分布的分支分析、遗传距离的估算等。随着分子系统学的发展，在各级分类阶元水平上探讨植物系统发育关系的研究取得了重大进展，很多植物类群的系统发育得到了重建，这使东亚－北美间断分布类群的历史生物地理学研究变得更为切实可行。同时，生物地理学的理论有了新的发展，新的分析方法不断涌现，化石记录及古气候和古地质资料得到大量积累，为深入探讨东亚—北美间断分布提供了条件。目前，已有20 多个东亚－北美间断分布的植物类群被详细研究，丰富了我们对这一现象的认知。然而，以往的研究多基于单亲遗传的叶绿体基因和（或）PCR 直接测序所得的nrDNA ITS 序列，在探讨杂交和网状进化方面存在较大的局限性。在本研究中，我们选取了崖柏属（Thuja L.）这一典型东亚—北美间断分布类群，用来自叶绿体和细胞核的多个基因序列重建其系统发育，探讨其地理分布格局的形成过程，并讨论不同遗传体系的多基因联合分析在植物生物地理学研究中的应用。此外，我们还初步探讨了低拷贝核基因4CL 在广义柏科的进化式样。 1、崖柏属的系统发育和生物地理学研究 崖柏属共 5 种，其中3 种分布于东亚，2 种分别分布于北美东、西部。我们用5 个叶绿体DNA 片段（rpl16 内含子, atpI-rpoC1、trnS-trnfM 和trnS-trnG 基因间区以及trnT-trnF 区）和3 个核基因片段（ITS，LEAFY，4CL）的序列重建了崖柏属的系统发育。发现：（1）基因树拓扑结构的冲突存在于叶绿体基因和核基因之间，甚至不同的核基因之间，说明崖柏属曾发生多次种间杂交并导致网状进化;（2）崖柏属中存在两个种对，即日本香柏－崖柏和朝鲜崖柏－北美香柏;（3）朝鲜崖柏在叶绿体和核基因树上位于不同的位置，可能因古老的杂交和叶绿体捕获所致;（4）北美乔柏的叶绿体基因存在镶嵌式的变异，可能在物种形成过程中发生了叶绿体重组。根据分子钟度量结果，崖柏属两个种对的分化时间为51.1±3.96 Mya，日本香柏和崖柏的分化时间为23.7±5.04 Mya，朝鲜崖柏和北美乔柏的分化时间为14.7±6.06 Mya。 基于多个基因的系统发育分析、DIVA 分析、化石证据和分子钟度量，我们推测崖柏属在古新世或更早的时候起源于北美高纬度地区，并通过白令陆桥扩散到东亚，然后通过隔离分化形成日本香柏－崖柏这一种对。白令陆桥和阿留申陆桥可能在崖柏属的进一步迁移中起了重要介导作用，使崖柏属内发生了多次种间杂交事件，并导致了崖柏－日本香柏和朝鲜崖柏－北美香柏这两种主要的叶绿体类型间的重组以及朝鲜崖柏对北美香柏叶绿体基因的捕获。携带重组叶绿体DNA 的杂交个体迁入北美西部，产生了北美乔柏。根据分子钟估算结果，该迁移事件可能发生在中新世。 鉴于以往对东亚—北美间断分布植物类群的分子系统学研究多基于单亲遗传的叶绿体基因和（或）PCR 直接测序的ITS 数据，这些类群中的网状进化事件可能被低估。同时，我们的结论也部分解释了为什么东亚、北美东部、北美西部三者间的关系存在很多争议：频繁的杂交和渐渗模糊了种间的系统发育关系。因此，我们建议在生物地理学研究中用来源于多个基因组的多基因分析，特别是用单/低拷贝核基因。 2、广义柏科4CL 基因进化的初步研究 广义柏科是松杉类植物中唯一在南、北半球广泛分布的类群，该科中既有古老的孑遗属和寡种属，也有第三纪起源、呈南北半球间断分布的类群。研究4CL 基因在这一类群中的进化，有助于探讨低拷贝核基因在松杉类植物中的进化式样和规律。4CL 在植物次生化合物的生物合成中起重要作用，它催化激活4-香豆酸和一些相关的底物形成不同的辅酶A，促进各种苯丙烷类的代谢。 我们从广义柏科 17 个属中扩增并克隆到23 条4CL 基因序列。基因结构和系统发育分析表明，4CL 在广义柏科中分为4CLI 和4CL II 两大类，二者间的序列相似性为67-70％，进化速率也有很大差异。RT-PCR 结果证明这两种类型均能转录，推测它们都具有功能，且基因结构的差异和序列之间的高度分化暗示这两大类可能执行不同的功能。在4CL 基因树中，落羽杉亚科、北美红杉亚科、狭义柏科的单系都得到了支持。尽管4CL 在广义柏科中的类型及拷贝数还有待研究，但4CLI 很可能以单拷贝或低拷贝存在，其高变的内含子序列可以用来探讨种间的系统发育关系。

Le bois d'oeuvre et le port de Montréal, 1830-1870 : une approche dendroarchéologique

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

TERPENE AND TERPENOID EMISSIONS AND SECONDARY ORGANIC AEROSOL PRODUCTION

Approximately 90% of fine aerosol in the Midwestern United States has a regional component with a sizable fraction attributed to secondary production of organic aerosol (SOA). The Ozark Forest is an important source of biogenic SOA precursors like isoprene (> 150 mg m-2 d-1), monoterpenes (10-40 mg m-2 d-1), and sesquiterpenes (10-40 mg m-2d-1). Anthropogenic sources include secondary sulfate and nitrate and biomass burning (51-60%), vehicle emissions (17-26%), and industrial emissions (16-18%). Vehicle emissions are an important source of volatile and vapor-phase, semivolatile aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons that are important anthropogenic sources of SOA precursors. The short lifetime of SOA precursors and the complex mixture of functionalized oxidation products make rapid sampling, quantitative processing methods, and comprehensive organic molecular analysis essential elements of a comprehensive strategy to advance understanding of SOA formation pathways. Uncertainties in forecasting SOA production on regional scales are large and related to uncertainties in biogenic emission inventories and measurement of SOA yields under ambient conditions. This work presents a bottom-up approach to develop a conifer emission inventory based on foliar and cortical oleoresin composition, development of a model to estimate terpene and terpenoid signatures of foliar and bole emissions from conifers, development of processing and analytic techniques for comprehensive organic molecular characterization of SOA precursors and oxidation products, implementation of the high-volume sampling technique to measure OA and vapor-phase organic matter, and results from a 5 day field experiment conducted to evaluate temporal and diurnal trends in SOA precursors and oxidation products. A total of 98, 115, and 87 terpene and terpenoid species were identified and quantified in commercially available essential oils of Pinus sylvestris, Picea mariana, and Thuja occidentalis, respectively, by comprehensive, two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometric detection (GC × GC-ToF-MS). Analysis of the literature showed that cortical oleoresin composition was similar to foliar composition of the oldest branches. Our proposed conceptual model for estimation of signatures of terpene and terpenoid emissions from foliar and cortical oleoresin showed that emission potentials of the foliar and bole release pathways are dissimilar and should be considered for conifer species that develop resin blisters or are infested with herbivores or pathogens. Average derivatization efficiencies for Methods 1 and 2 were 87.9 and 114%, respectively. Despite the lower average derivatization efficiency of Method 1, distinct advantages included a greater certainty of derivatization yield for the entire suite of multi- and poly-functional species and fewer processing steps for sequential derivatization. Detection limits for Method 1 using GC × GC- ToF-MS were 0.09-1.89 ng μL-1. A theoretical retention index diagram was developed for a hypothetical GC × 2GC analysis of the complex mixture of SOA precursors and derivatized oxidation products. In general, species eluted (relative to the alkyl diester reference compounds) from the primary column (DB-210) in bands according to n and from the secondary columns (BPX90, SolGel-WAX) according to functionality, essentially making the GC × 2GC retention diagram a Carbon number-functionality grid. The species clustered into 35 groups by functionality and species within each group exhibited good separation by n. Average recoveries of n-alkanes and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by Soxhlet extraction of XAD-2 resin with dichloromethane were 80.1 ± 16.1 and 76.1 ± 17.5%, respectively. Vehicle emissions were the common source for HSVOCs [i.e., resolved alkanes, the unresolved complex mixture (UCM), alkylbenzenes, and 2- and 3-ring PAHs]. An absence of monoterpenes at 0600-1000 and high concentrations of monoterpenoids during the same period was indicative of substantial losses of monoterpenes overnight and the early morning hours. Post-collection, comprehensive organic molecular characterization of SOA precursors and products by GC × GC-ToFMS in ambient air collected with ~2 hr resolution is a promising method for determining biogenic and anthropogenic SOA yields that can be used to evaluate SOA formation models.

Carbon in the Peatlands in the Great Lakes Region

Peatlands cover only ~3% of the global land area, but store ~30% of the worlds' soil carbon. There are many different peat types that store different amounts of carbon. Most inventories of carbon storage in northern peatlands have been conducted in the expansive Sphagnum dominated peatlands. Although, northern white cedar peatlands (NW cedar, Thuja occidentalis L.) are also one of the most common peatland types in the Great Lakes Region, occupying more than 2 million hectares. NW cedar swamps are understudied, due in part to the difficulties in collection methods. General lack of rapid and consistent sampling methods has also contributed in a lack of carbon stock quantification for many peatlands. The main objective of this thesis is to quantify: 1) to evaluate peat sampling methods 2) the amount of C-stored and the rates of long-term carbon accumulation in NW cedar peatlands. We sampled 38 peatlands separated into four categories (black ash, NW cedar swamp, sedge, and Sphagnum) during the summers of 2011/2012 across northern MN and the Upper Peninsula of MI. Basal dates of peat indicate that cedar peatlands were between 1970-7790 years old. Cedar peatlands are generally shallower than Sphagnum peat, but due to their higher bulk density, hold similar amounts of carbon with our sites averaging ~800 MgC ha-1. We estimate that NW cedar peatlands store over 1.7 Gt of carbon in the Great Lakes Region. Each of the six methods evaluated had a different level of accuracy and requires varying levels of effort and resources. The depth only method and intermittent sampling method were the most accurate methods of peatland sampling.

Present-day vegetation and the Holocene and recent development of Egelsee-Moor, Salzburg province, Austria

This paper describes the present-day vegetation, stratigraphy and developmental history of the mire of Egelsee-Moor (Salzburg, Austria; 45°45′N, 13°8.5′E, 700 m a.s.l., 15 ha in area) since the early Late Glacial on the basis of 4 transects with 14 trial borings across the peatland. We present a vegetation map of the mire, a longitudinal section through the peat body based on six cores showing the peat types, overview macrofossil diagrams of six cores showing the local mire development and two pollen diagrams covering the Late Glacial and Holocene. The chronology of the diagrams depends on biostratigraphic dating for the Late Glacial and early Holocene and radiocarbon dating for the remaining Holocene. The northern part of the mire originated through terrestrialisation of nutrient-rich, mostly inundated fen and the southern part through paludification of wet soils. The very small lake of today was a reservoir until recently for providing water-power for timber rafting (‘Holztrift’). The mire vegetation today is a complex of forested parts (mainly planted Pinus sylvestris and Thuja occidentalis, but also spontaneous Picea abies, Betula pubescens and Frangula alnus), reed-lands (Phragmites) and litter meadows (Molinietum, Schoenetum, etc.). The central part has hummock-hollow complexes with regionally rare species of transitional mires (Drosera anglica, D. intermedia, Lycopodiella inundata, Scorpidium scorpioides, Sphagnum platyphyllum, S. subnitens). The results indicate that some of the mid-Holocene sediments may have been removed by the timber-rafting practices, and that water extraction from the hydrological catchment since 1967 has resulted in a partial shift of transitional mire to ombrotrophic bog. The latter potentially endangers the regionally rare species and was used as an argument to stop further water extraction.

Anatomía comparada de la madera de Cupressaceae y su correspondencia con los estudios de filogenia

La familia Cupressaceae incluye un total de 133 especies agrupadas en 30 géneros, 17 de los cuales son monospecíficos. Esta familia se encuentra representada en todos los continentes salvo en la Antártida. Sus especies se distribuyen en distintas regiones climáticas, y en altitudes que varían desde el nivel del mar hasta los 5.000 m. La falta de descripción anatómica de muchos de los géneros y especies de Cupressaceae es notable, así como la contradicción que aparece entre distintas investigaciones sobre las características anatómicas de la madera descritas para cada especie. Este estudio describe la anatomía de la madera de Cupressaceae y analiza las características que podrían representar sinapomorfías de los clados delimitados en los estudios filogenéticos. Siguiendo los métodos tradicionales de preparación y descripción de la madera a nivel microscópico, se ha estudiado la madera de 113 especies de los 30 géneros de Cupressaceae. Para ello se han empleado muestras de madera de origen trazable, procedentes de colecciones de madera de distintas instituciones internacionales. Se ha empleado una robusta filogenia molecular para la reconstrucción de los caracteres ancestrales. La anatomía de la madera de los 30 géneros de Cupressaceae, pone de manifiesto la gran homogeneidad de la familia, caracterizada por la presencia de traqueidas axiales sin engrosamientos helicoidales, parénquima radial con paredes horizontales lisas, punteaduras del campo de cruce de tipo cupresoide y la carencia de canales resiníferos fisiológicos. Además, todos presentan parénquima axial (salvo Neocallitropsis, Thuja y Xanthocyparis), punteaduras radiales areoladas con toro definido (salvo Thuja y Thujopsis), siendo habitual la presencia de punteaduras areoladas en las paredes tangenciales de la madera tardía, y verrugosidades en la cara interna de las traqueidas (salvo Ca. macleayana, Libocedrus, Papuacedrus y Neocallitropsis). Los radios leñosos son homogéneos y están compuestos de parénquima radial (con la presencia de traqueidas radiales en algunas especies de Cupressus, Sequoia, Thujopsis y X. nootkatensis) con paredes finales lisas o lisas y noduladas (exclusivamente noduladas en Cal. macrolepis, C. bakeri y en la mayoría de especies de Juniperus), y el rango de altura de los radios leñosos se encuentra entre 5 y 15 células. Se consideran posibles sinapomorfismos de Cupressaceae la presencia de verrugosidades en la cara interna de las traqueidas, la presencia de traqueidas axiales sin engrosamientos helicoidales, la presencia de parénquima axial, la presencia de radios leñosos homogéneos (compuestos únicamente de parénquima radial), la tipología de las paredes horizontales del parénquima radial, las punteaduras del campo de cruce de tipo cupresoide y la ausencia de canales resiníferos fisiológicos, pero lo que realmente diferencia a este grupo de coníferas es la simultaneidad de todos estos caracteres en sus maderas. Como sinapomorfías específicas por clados se proponen: la ausencia de toro definido y muescas en el borde de las punteaduras en Thuja-Thujopsis, la existencia de extensiones de toro en Diselma-Fitzroya-Widdringtonia; la presencia de engrosamientos callitroides en Callitris-Actinostrobus; la presencia de espacios intercelulares y las muescas en el borde de las punteaduras en el clado formado por el género Juniperus y las especies de Cupressus en la región oriental; la presencia de paredes finales del parénquima radial tanto lisas como noduladas en los clados formados por el género Xanthocyparis y las especies de Cupressus en la región occidental y en Fitzroya-Diselma; y por último, la presencia de punteaduras del campo de cruce de tipo taxodioide en los clados taxodioid y sequoioid. ABSTRACT The Cupressaceae family comprises 133 species grouped into 30 genera, 17 of which are monotypic. The family is represented in all continents except Antarctica. Its species are distributed in various climate zones and at altitudes from sea level to 5,000 m. There is a considerable lack of anatomical descriptions for many genera and species of Cupressaceae and much contradiction between studies about the wood anatomical features described for each species. This study describes the wood anatomy of Cupressaceae and analyses the features that could represent synapomorphies of the clades recovered in phylogenetic studies. Following the traditional methods of preparation and description of wood at microscopic level, a study was made of the wood of 113 species of the 30 Cupressaceae genera. The study samples had traceable origins and came from wood collections held at various international institutions. A robust molecular phylogeny was used for ancestral state reconstruction. The wood anatomy of the 30 genera of the Cupressaceae shows the high homogeneity of the family, which is characterised by the presence of axial tracheids without helical thickenings, smooth horizontal walls of ray parenchyma cells, cupressoid cross-field pits, and the absence of physiological resin canals. In addition, they all have axial parenchyma (except Neocallitropsis, Thuja and Xanthocyparis), a warty layer on the inner wall of the tracheids (except Ca. macleayana, Libocedrus, Papuacedrus and Neocallitropsis) and tracheid pitting in radial walls with a well defined torus (except Thuja and Thujopsis); tracheid pitting in the tangential walls of the latewood is common. Rays are homogeneous and are composed of ray parenchyma (with the presence of ray tracheids in some species of Cupressus, Sequoia, Thujopsis and X. nootkatensis), with smooth end walls or both smooth and nodular end walls (exclusively nodular in Cal. macrolepis, C. bakeri and most Juniperus species), and ray height range is 5 to 15 cells. Possible synapomorphies of Cupressaceae are the presence of a warty layer on the inner layer of the tracheids, axial tracheids without helical thickenings, the presence of axial parenchyma, homogeneous rays (composed exclusively of ray parenchyma), the typology of the horizontal walls of ray parenchyma cells, cupressoid cross-field pits and the absence of physiological resin canals, but what truly differentiates this group of softwoods is the co-occurrence of all these features in their wood. The following are proposed as clade-specific synapomorphies: absence of a well-defined torus and presence of pits with notched borders in Thuja-Thujopsis, torus extensions in Diselma-Fitzroya-Widdringtonia; callitroid thickenings in Callitris-Actinostrobus; intercellular spaces and pits with notched borders in the clade formed by the genus Juniperus and the species of Cupressus in the eastern region; smooth and nodular ray parenchyma end walls in the clades formed by the genus Xanthocyparis and the species of Cupressus in the western region and in Fitzroya-Diselma, and taxodioid cross-field pits in the taxodioid and sequoioid clades.

USING MOSSES TO ASSESS CONDITIONS IN NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR SWAMPS

Northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.) (NWC) swamps are valuable both commercially and ecologically. Unfortunately, many NWC swamps are degraded and information about them is not abundant. Especially there have been no definitive studies about mosses in northern white cedar swamps and how they react to disturbances. Mosses are sensitive to changes in their environment and thus they could be used to assess ecosystem conditions of NWC swamps. The objective of this study was to determine if mosses could be used to asses conditions in NWC swamps and if there are differences between moss communities in disturbed and undisturbed sites. Seventeen sample plots were taken from 12 disturbed and undisturbed sites around upper Michigan and northern Minnesota in the summer of 2012. All mosses occurring on the plots were identified and several associated environmental parameters were measured. The main environmental conditions affecting moss communities were identified with non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS). Multiple response permutation procedures (MRPP) were run to ascertain if there were significant differences in community composition between disturbances. Indicator species analysis was then done to identify species that are related to different types of disturbances. A one-way ANOVA was used to check for significant differences between species richness and moss cover of undisturbed and disturbed sites. Over all sixty-two moss species were identified. The results indicate that there was no significant difference in species richness or moss cover between disturbed and undisturbed sites. However, moss community composition was affected by disturbance and strongly divided by a wetness gradient. Dicranum fuscescens was found to indicate undisturbed conditions. Calliergon cordifolium and Climacium dendroides indicated disturbed sites with wet conditions. Brotherella recurvans and Eurhynchium pulchellum indicated swamps with other disturbances.