Tool support for generating passive C++ test oracles from object-z specifications

A test oracle provides a means for determining whether an implementation behaves according to its specification. A passive test oracle checks that the correct behaviour has been implemented, but does not implement the behaviour itself. In previous work, we have presented a method that allows us to derive passive C++ test oracles from formal specifications written in Object-Z. We describe the "Warlock" prototype tool that supports the method. Warlock is built on top of an existing Object-Z type checker and generates oracle code for a substantial subset of the Object-Z language. We describe the architecture of Warlock and its application to a number of Object-Z specifications. We also discuss its current limitations.

A framework for specification-based testing

Test templates and a test template framework are introduced as useful concepts in specification-based testing. The framework can be defined using any model-based specification notation and used to derive tests from model-based specifications-in this paper, it is demonstrated using the Z notation. The framework formally defines test data sets and their relation to the operations in a specification and to other test data sets, providing structure to the testing process. Flexibility is preserved, so that many testing strategies can be used. Important application areas of the framework are discussed, including refinement of test data, regression testing, and test oracles.

Discriminative pattern mining in software fault detection

We present a method to enhance fault localization for software systems based on a frequent pattern mining algorithm. Our method is based on a large set of test cases for a given set of programs in which faults can be detected. The test executions are recorded as function call trees. Based on test oracles the tests can be classified into successful and failing tests. A frequent pattern mining algorithm is used to identify frequent subtrees in successful and failing test executions. This information is used to rank functions according to their likelihood of containing a fault. The ranking suggests an order in which to examine the functions during fault analysis. We validate our approach experimentally using a subset of Siemens benchmark programs.

Supporting the software testing process through specification animation

Achieving consistency between a specification and its implementation is an important part of software development. In this paper, we present a method for generating passive test oracles that act as self-checking implementations. The implementation is verified using an animation tool to check that the behavior of the implementation matches the behavior of the specification. We discuss how to integrate this method into a framework developed for systematically animating specifications, which means a tester can significantly reduce testing time and effort by reusing work products from the animation. One such work product is a testgraph: a directed graph that partially models the states and transitions of the specification. Testgraphs are used to generate sequences for animation, and during testing, to execute these same sequences on the implementation.

Generación de Casos de Prueba en Programación Orientada a Objetos = Test Case Generation in Object-Oriented Programming

Las pruebas de software (Testing) son en la actualidad la técnica más utilizada para la validación y la evaluación de la calidad de un programa. El testing está integrado en todas las metodologías prácticas de desarrollo de software y juega un papel crucial en el éxito de cualquier proyecto de software. Desde las unidades de código más pequeñas a los componentes más complejos, su integración en un sistema de software y su despliegue a producción, todas las piezas de un producto de software deben ser probadas a fondo antes de que el producto de software pueda ser liberado a un entorno de producción. La mayor limitación del testing de software es que continúa siendo un conjunto de tareas manuales, representando una buena parte del coste total de desarrollo. En este escenario, la automatización resulta fundamental para aliviar estos altos costes. La generación automática de casos de pruebas (TCG, del inglés test case generation) es el proceso de generar automáticamente casos de prueba que logren un alto recubrimiento del programa. Entre la gran variedad de enfoques hacia la TCG, esta tesis se centra en un enfoque estructural de caja blanca, y más concretamente en una de las técnicas más utilizadas actualmente, la ejecución simbólica. En ejecución simbólica, el programa bajo pruebas es ejecutado con expresiones simbólicas como argumentos de entrada en lugar de valores concretos. Esta tesis se basa en un marco general para la generación automática de casos de prueba dirigido a programas imperativos orientados a objetos (Java, por ejemplo) y basado en programación lógica con restricciones (CLP, del inglés constraint logic programming). En este marco general, el programa imperativo bajo pruebas es primeramente traducido a un programa CLP equivalente, y luego dicho programa CLP es ejecutado simbólicamente utilizando los mecanismos de evaluación estándar de CLP, extendidos con operaciones especiales para el tratamiento de estructuras de datos dinámicas. Mejorar la escalabilidad y la eficiencia de la ejecución simbólica constituye un reto muy importante. Es bien sabido que la ejecución simbólica resulta impracticable debido al gran número de caminos de ejecución que deben ser explorados y a tamaño de las restricciones que se deben manipular. Además, la generación de casos de prueba mediante ejecución simbólica tiende a producir un número innecesariamente grande de casos de prueba cuando es aplicada a programas de tamaño medio o grande. Las contribuciones de esta tesis pueden ser resumidas como sigue. (1) Se desarrolla un enfoque composicional basado en CLP para la generación de casos de prueba, el cual busca aliviar el problema de la explosión de caminos interprocedimiento analizando de forma separada cada componente (p.ej. método) del programa bajo pruebas, almacenando los resultados y reutilizándolos incrementalmente hasta obtener resultados para el programa completo. También se ha desarrollado un enfoque composicional basado en especialización de programas (evaluación parcial) para la herramienta de ejecución simbólica Symbolic PathFinder (SPF). (2) Se propone una metodología para usar información del consumo de recursos del programa bajo pruebas para guiar la ejecución simbólica hacia aquellas partes del programa que satisfacen una determinada política de recursos, evitando la exploración de aquellas partes del programa que violan dicha política. (3) Se propone una metodología genérica para guiar la ejecución simbólica hacia las partes más interesantes del programa, la cual utiliza abstracciones como generadores de trazas para guiar la ejecución de acuerdo a criterios de selección estructurales. (4) Se propone un nuevo resolutor de restricciones, el cual maneja eficientemente restricciones sobre el uso de la memoria dinámica global (heap) durante ejecución simbólica, el cual mejora considerablemente el rendimiento de la técnica estándar utilizada para este propósito, la \lazy initialization". (5) Todas las técnicas propuestas han sido implementadas en el sistema PET (el enfoque composicional ha sido también implementado en la herramienta SPF). Mediante evaluación experimental se ha confirmado que todas ellas mejoran considerablemente la escalabilidad y eficiencia de la ejecución simbólica y la generación de casos de prueba. ABSTRACT Testing is nowadays the most used technique to validate software and assess its quality. It is integrated into all practical software development methodologies and plays a crucial role towards the success of any software project. From the smallest units of code to the most complex components and their integration into a software system and later deployment; all pieces of a software product must be tested thoroughly before a software product can be released. The main limitation of software testing is that it remains a mostly manual task, representing a large fraction of the total development cost. In this scenario, test automation is paramount to alleviate such high costs. Test case generation (TCG) is the process of automatically generating test inputs that achieve high coverage of the system under test. Among a wide variety of approaches to TCG, this thesis focuses on structural (white-box) TCG, where one of the most successful enabling techniques is symbolic execution. In symbolic execution, the program under test is executed with its input arguments being symbolic expressions rather than concrete values. This thesis relies on a previously developed constraint-based TCG framework for imperative object-oriented programs (e.g., Java), in which the imperative program under test is first translated into an equivalent constraint logic program, and then such translated program is symbolically executed by relying on standard evaluation mechanisms of Constraint Logic Programming (CLP), extended with special treatment for dynamically allocated data structures. Improving the scalability and efficiency of symbolic execution constitutes a major challenge. It is well known that symbolic execution quickly becomes impractical due to the large number of paths that must be explored and the size of the constraints that must be handled. Moreover, symbolic execution-based TCG tends to produce an unnecessarily large number of test cases when applied to medium or large programs. The contributions of this dissertation can be summarized as follows. (1) A compositional approach to CLP-based TCG is developed which overcomes the inter-procedural path explosion by separately analyzing each component (method) in a program under test, stowing the results as method summaries and incrementally reusing them to obtain whole-program results. A similar compositional strategy that relies on program specialization is also developed for the state-of-the-art symbolic execution tool Symbolic PathFinder (SPF). (2) Resource-driven TCG is proposed as a methodology to use resource consumption information to drive symbolic execution towards those parts of the program under test that comply with a user-provided resource policy, avoiding the exploration of those parts of the program that violate such policy. (3) A generic methodology to guide symbolic execution towards the most interesting parts of a program is proposed, which uses abstractions as oracles to steer symbolic execution through those parts of the program under test that interest the programmer/tester most. (4) A new heap-constraint solver is proposed, which efficiently handles heap-related constraints and aliasing of references during symbolic execution and greatly outperforms the state-of-the-art standard technique known as lazy initialization. (5) All techniques above have been implemented in the PET system (and some of them in the SPF tool). Experimental evaluation has confirmed that they considerably help towards a more scalable and efficient symbolic execution and TCG.

Adapting The Sniffin' Sticks Olfactory Test To Diagnose Parkinson's Disease In Estonia.

The aim of the study was to develop a culturally adapted translation of the 12-item smell identification test from Sniffin' Sticks (SS-12) for the Estonian population in order to help diagnose Parkinson's disease (PD). A standard translation of the SS-12 was created and 150 healthy Estonians were questioned about the smells used as response options in the test. Unfamiliar smells were replaced by culturally familiar options. The adapted SS-12 was applied to 70 controls in all age groups, and thereafter to 50 PD patients and 50 age- and sex-matched controls. 14 response options from 48 used in the SS-12 were replaced with familiar smells in an adapted version, in which the mean rate of correct response was 87% (range 73-99) compared to 83% with the literal translation (range 50-98). In PD patients, the average adapted SS-12 score (5.4/12) was significantly lower than in controls (average score 8.9/12), p < 0.0001. A multiple linear regression using the score in the SS-12 as the outcome measure showed that diagnosis and age independently influenced the result of the SS-12. A logistic regression using the SS-12 and age as covariates showed that the SS-12 (but not age) correctly classified 79.0% of subjects into the PD and control category, using a cut-off of <7 gave a sensitivity of 76% and specificity of 86% for the diagnosis of PD. The developed SS-12 cultural adaption is appropriate for testing olfaction in Estonia for the purpose of PD diagnosis.

Effect Of Exercise Test On Pulmonary Function Of Obese Adolescents.

to investigate the pulmonary response to exercise of non-morbidly obese adolescents, considering the gender. a prospective cross-sectional study was conducted with 92 adolescents (47 obese and 45 eutrophic), divided in four groups according to obesity and gender. Anthropometric parameters, pulmonary function (spirometry and oxygen saturation [SatO2]), heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), respiratory rate (RR), and respiratory muscle strength were measured. Pulmonary function parameters were measured before, during, and after the exercise test. BP and HR were higher in obese individuals during the exercise test (p = 0.0001). SatO2 values decreased during exercise in obese adolescents (p = 0.0001). Obese males had higher levels of maximum inspiratory and expiratory pressures (p = 0.0002) when compared to obese and eutrophic females. Obese males showed lower values of maximum voluntary ventilation, forced vital capacity, and forced expiratory volume in the first second when compared to eutrophic males, before and after exercise (p = 0.0005). Obese females had greater inspiratory capacity compared to eutrophic females (p = 0.0001). Expiratory reserve volume was lower in obese subjects when compared to controls (p ≤ 0,05). obese adolescents presented changes in pulmonary function at rest and these changes remained present during exercise. The spirometric and cardiorespiratory values were different in the four study groups. The present data demonstrated that, in spite of differences in lung growth, the model of fat distribution alters pulmonary function differently in obese female and male adolescents.

The Lea Grating Test In Assessing Detection Grating Acuity In Normal Infants Less Than 4 Months Of Age.

To assess binocular detection grating acuity using the LEA GRATINGS test to establish age-related norms in healthy infants during their first 3 months of life. In this prospective, longitudinal study of healthy infants with clear red reflex at birth, responses to gratings were measured at 1, 2, and 3 months of age using LEA gratings at a distance of 28 cm. The results were recorded as detection grating acuity values, which were arranged in frequency tables and converted to a one-octave scale for statistical analysis. For the repeated measurements, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the detection grating acuity results between ages. A total of 133 infants were included. The binocular responses to gratings showed development toward higher mean values and spatial frequencies, ranging from 0.55 ± 0.70 cycles per degree (cpd), or 1.74 ± 0.21 logMAR, in month 1 to 3.11 ± 0.54 cpd, or 0.98 ± 0.16 logMAR, in month 3. Repeated ANOVA indicated differences among grating acuity values in the three age groups. The LEA GRATINGS test allowed assessment of detection grating acuity and its development in a cohort of healthy infants during their first 3 months of life.

The Geometric Curvature Of The Spine Of Runners During Maximal Incremental Effort Test.

This study sought to analyse the behaviour of the average spinal posture using a novel investigative procedure in a maximal incremental effort test performed on a treadmill. Spine motion was collected via stereo-photogrammetric analysis in thirteen amateur athletes. At each time percentage of the gait cycle, the reconstructed spine points were projected onto the sagittal and frontal planes of the trunk. On each plane, a polynomial was fitted to the data, and the two-dimensional geometric curvature along the longitudinal axis of the trunk was calculated to quantify the geometric shape of the spine. The average posture presented at the gait cycle defined the spine Neutral Curve. This method enabled the lateral deviations, lordosis, and kyphosis of the spine to be quantified noninvasively and in detail. The similarity between each two volunteers was a maximum of 19% on the sagittal plane and 13% on the frontal (p<0.01). The data collected in this study can be considered preliminary evidence that there are subject-specific characteristics in spinal curvatures during running. Changes induced by increases in speed were not sufficient for the Neutral Curve to lose its individual characteristics, instead behaving like a postural signature. The data showed the descriptive capability of a new method to analyse spinal postures during locomotion; however, additional studies, and with larger sample sizes, are necessary for extracting more general information from this novel methodology.

Twin-twin Transfusion Syndrome: Neurodevelopmental Screening Test.

Objective To assess the neurodevelopmental functions (cognition, language and motor function) of survivors of twin-twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS). Method Observational cross-sectional study of a total of 67 monochorionic diamniotic twins who underwent fetoscopic laser coagulation (FLC) for treatment of TTTS. The study was conducted at the Center for Investigation in Pediatrics (CIPED), Universidade Estadual de Campinas. Ages ranged from one month and four days to two years four months. Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development Screening Test-III, were used for evaluation. Results Most children reached the competent category and were classified as having appropriate performance. The preterm children scored worse than term infants for gross motor subtest (p = 0.036). Conclusion The majority of children reached the expected development according to their age. Despite the good neurodevelopment, children classified at risk should be monitored for development throughout childhood.

Evaluation of the cytotoxic and genotoxic potential of water from the River Paraíba do Sul, in Brazil, with the Allium cepa L. test

This work investigated the cytotoxic and genotoxic potential of water from the River Paraíba do Sul (Brazil) using Allium cepa roots. An anatomo-morphological parameter (root length), mitotic indices, and frequency of micronuclei were analysed. Eight bulbs were chosen at random for treatment for 24 to 120 hours with the River water collected in the years of 2005 and 2006 from sites in the cities of Tremembé and Aparecida (São Paulo state, Brazil). Daily measurements of the length of the roots grown from each bulb were carried out throughout the experiment. Mitotic index (MI) and frequency of micronuclei (MN) were determined for 2000 cells per root, using 3-5 root tips from other bulbs (7-10). Only in the roots treated with samples of the River water collected in 2005 in Tremembé city was there a decrease in the root length growth compared to the respective control. However, a reduction in MI values was verified for both sites analysed for that year. Considering the data involving root length growth and especially MI values, a cytotoxic potential is suggested for the water of the River Paraíba do Sul at Tremembé and Aparecida, in the year of 2005. On the other hand, since in this year the MN frequency was not affected with the river water treatments, genotoxicity is not assumed for the river water sampled at the aforementioned places.

Comparison between the 1% and 2% ibopamine provocative test in primary open-angle glaucoma patients: sensitivity, specificity and tolerability

PURPOSE: To compare intraocular pressure (IOP) rise in normal individuals and primary open-angle glaucoma patients and the safety and efficacy of ibopamine eye drops in different concentrations as a provocative test for glaucoma. METHODS: Glaucoma patients underwent (same eye) the ibopamine provocative test with two concentrations, 1% and 2%, in a random sequence at least 3 weeks apart, but not more than 3 months. The normal individuals were randomly submitted to one of the concentrations of ibopamine (1% and 2%). The test was considered positive if there was an IOP rise greater than 3 or 4 mmHg at 30 or 45 minutes to test which subset of the test has the best sensitivity (Se)/specificity (Sp). RESULTS: There was no statistically significant difference in any of the IOP measurements, comparing 1% with 2% ibopamine. The IOP was significantly higher at 30 and 45 minutes with both concentrations (p<0.001). The best sensitivity/specificity ratio was achieved with the cutoff point set as greater than 3 mmHg at 45 minutes with 2% ibopamine (area under the ROC curve: 0.864, Se: 84.6%; Sp:73.3%). All patients described a slight burning after ibopamine's instillation. CONCLUSION: 2% ibopamine is recommended as a provocative test for glaucoma. Because both concentrations have similar ability to rise IOP, 1% ibopamine may be used to treat ocular hypotony.

Applying a new version of the Brazilian-Portuguese UPSIT smell test in Brazil

Standardized olfactory tests are now available to quantitatively assess disorders of olfaction. A Brazilian-Portuguese version of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT) is currently being developed specifically for the Brazilian population. The most recent Brazilian-Portuguese version of the UPSIT (UPSIT-Br2) was administered to 88 Brazilian subjects who had no history of neurological or otorhinolaryngological disease. UPSIT-Br2 scores decreased with age, were lower in men than in women, and were lower in subjects with lower income. The degree to which the poorer performance of subjects with lower socio-economic status reflects lack of familiarity with test items is not known. Although this version of the UPSIT provides a sensitive and useful test of smell function for the Brazilian population, a revision of some test items is needed to achieve comparable norms to those found using the North American UPSIT in the United States.

Pathogenicity of different rabies virus isolates and protection test in vaccinated mice

This study was aimed to evaluate and compare the pathogenicity of rabies virus isolated from bats and dogs, and to verify the efficacy of a commercial rabies vaccine against these isolates. For evaluation of pathogenicity, mice were inoculated by the intramuscular route (IM) with 500MICLD50/0.03mL of the viruses. The cross-protection test was performed by vaccinating groups of mice by the subcutaneous route and challenged through the intracerebral (IC) route. Isolates were fully pathogenic when inoculated by the IC route. When inoculated intramuscularly, the pathogenicity observed showed different death rates: 60.0% for the Desmodus rotundus isolate; 50.0% for dog and Nyctinomops laticaudatus isolates; 40.0% for Artibeus lituratus isolate; 9.5% Molossus molossus isolate; and 5.2% for the Eptesicus furinalis isolate. Mice receiving two doses of the vaccine and challenged by the IC route with the isolates were fully protected. Mice receiving only one dose of vaccine were partially protected against the dog isolate. The isolates from bats were pathogenic by the IC route in mice. However, when inoculated through the intramuscular route, the same isolates were found with different degrees of pathogenicity. The results of this work suggest that a commercial vaccine protects mice from infection with bat rabies virus isolates, in addition to a canine rabies virus isolate.