The evolutionary origins of human patience: temporal preferences in chimpanzees, bonobos, and human adults.

To make adaptive choices, individuals must sometimes exhibit patience, forgoing immediate benefits to acquire more valuable future rewards [1-3]. Although humans account for future consequences when making temporal decisions [4], many animal species wait only a few seconds for delayed benefits [5-10]. Current research thus suggests a phylogenetic gap between patient humans and impulsive, present-oriented animals [9, 11], a distinction with implications for our understanding of economic decision making [12] and the origins of human cooperation [13]. On the basis of a series of experimental results, we reject this conclusion. First, bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) exhibit a degree of patience not seen in other animals tested thus far. Second, humans are less willing to wait for food rewards than are chimpanzees. Third, humans are more willing to wait for monetary rewards than for food, and show the highest degree of patience only in response to decisions about money involving low opportunity costs. These findings suggest that core components of the capacity for future-oriented decisions evolved before the human lineage diverged from apes. Moreover, the different levels of patience that humans exhibit might be driven by fundamental differences in the mechanisms representing biological versus abstract rewards.

Exploring users inter-temporal preferences for measuring transport social equity effects

There exist different ways for defining a welfare function. Traditionally, welfare economic theory foundation is based on the Net Present Value (NPV) calculation where the time dependent preferences of considered agents are taken into account. However, the time preferences, remains a controversial subject. Currently, the traditional approach employs a unique discount rate for various agents. Nevertheless, this way of discounting appears inconsistent with sustainable development. New research work suggests that the discount rate may not be a homogeneous value. The discount rates may change following the individual’s preferences. A significant body of evidence suggests that people do not behave following a constant discount rate. In fact, UK Government has quickly recognized the power of the arguments for time-varying rates, as it has done in its official guidance to Ministries on the appraisal of investments and policies. Other authors deal with not just time preference but with uncertainty about future income (precautionary saving). In a situation in which economic growth rates are similar across time periods, the rationale for declining social optimal discount rates is driven by the preferences of the individuals in the economy, rather than expectations of growth. However, these approaches have been mainly focused on long-term policies where intergenerational risks may appear. The traditional cost-benefit analysis (CBA) uses a unique discount rate derived from market interest rates or investment rates of return for discounting the costs and benefits of all social agents included in the CBA. However, recent literature showed that a more adequate measure of social benefit is possible by using different discount rates including inter-temporal preferences rate of users, private investment discount rate and intertemporal preferences rate of government. Actually, the costs of opportunity may differ amongst individuals, firms, governments, or society in general, as do the returns on savings. In general, the firms or operators require an investment rate linked to the current return on savings, while the discount rate of consumers-users depends on their time preferences with respect of the current and the future consumption, as well as society can take into account the intergenerational well-being, adopting a lower discount rate for today’s generation. Time discount rate of social actors (users, operators, government and society) places a lower value in a future gain, but the uncertainty about future income strongly determines the individual preferences. These time and uncertainty depends on preferences and should be integrated into a transport policy formulation that may have significant social impacts. The discount rate of a user cannot be the same than the operator’s discount rate. The preferences of both are different. In addition, another school of thought suggests that people, such as a social group, may have different attitudes towards future costs and benefits. Particularly, the users have different discount rates related to their income. Some research work tried to modify user discount rates using a compensating weight which represents the inverse of household income level. The inter-temporal preferences are a proxy of the willingness to pay during the time. Its consideration is important in order to make acceptable or not a policy or investment

Integration of congestion pricing and intertemporal preference rate in social welfare function

Assessing social benefits in transport policy implementation has been studied by many researchers using theoretical or empirical measures. However, few of them measure social benefit using different discount rates including the inter-temporal preferences rate of users, the private investment discount rate and the inter-temporal preferences rate of the government. In general, the social discount rate used is the same for all social actors. Therefore, this paper aims to assess a new method by integrating different types of discount rate belonging to different social actors in order to measure the real benefits of each actor in the short, medium and long term. A dynamic simulation is provided by a strategic Land-Use and Transport Interaction (LUTI) model. The method is tested by optimizing a cordon toll scheme in Madrid considering socio- economic efficiency and environmental criteria. Based on the modified social welfare function (WF), the effects on the measure of social benefits are estimated and compared with the classical WF results as well. The results of this research could be a key issue to understanding the relationship between transport system policies and social actors' benefits distribution in a metropolitan context. The results show that the use of more suitable discount rates for each social actor had an effect on the selection and definition of optimal strategy of congestion pricing. The usefulness of the measure of congestion toll declines more quickly overtime.

Delay discounting in mild cognitive impairment

Introduction : Patients with mild cognitive impairme nt (MCI) may make suboptimal decisions particularly in complex situations, and thi s could be due to temporal discounting, the tendency to prefer immediate rewards over delayed but larger rewards. The present study proposes to evaluate intertemporal prefere nces in MCI patients as compared to healthy controls. Method : Fifty-five patients with MCI and 57 h ealthy controls underwent neuropsy- chological evaluation and a delay discounting questionnaire, which evaluates three para- meters: hyperbolic discounting ( k ), the percentage of choices for delayed and later rewards (%LL), and response consistency (Acc). Results : No significant differences were found in the delay discounting questionnaire between MC I patients and controls for the three reward sizes considered, small, medium, and large, using both k and %LL parameters. There were also no differences in the response consistency, Acc, between the two groups. Conclusions : Patients with MCI perform similarly to healthy controls in a delay discounting task. Memory deficits do not notably affect intertemporal preferences.

Bait and habitat preferences, and temporal variability of social wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) attracted to vertebrate carrion

In addition to feeding on carrion tissues and fluids, social wasps can also prey on immature and adult carrion flies, thereby reducing their populations and retarding the decomposition process of carcasses. In this study, we report on the occurrence and behavior of social wasps attracted to vertebrate carrion. The collections were made monthly from September 2006 to October 2007 in three environments (rural, urban, and forest) in six municipalities of southeast Brazil, using baited bottle traps. We collected Agelaia pallipes (Olivier, 1791) (n = 143), Agelaia vicina (Saussure, 1854) (n = 106), Agelaia multipicta (Haliday, 1836) (n = 18), and Polybia paulista Ihering, 1896 (n = 3). The wasps were observed feeding directly on the baits and preying on adult insects collected in the traps. Bait and habitat associations, temporal variability of social wasps, and possible forensic implications of their actions are discussed. © 2011 Entomological Society of America.

Variability in north temperate dung beetle assemblages at different spatial and temporal scales

This study examined the spatial and temporal variability of dung beetle assemblages across a variety of scales e.g. from the between-pad scale (examining the effects of dung size and type) to larger spatial scales encompassing southern Ireland. Dung beetle assemblage structure as sampled by dung pad cohort samples and dung baited pitfall trapping were compared. Generally, the rank order of abundance of dung beetle species was significantly correlated between pitfall catches and cohort pad samples. Across different dung sizes, in both pitfall catches and cohort pad samples, the relative abundance of species was frequently significantly different, but the rank order of abundance of dung beetle was usually significantly correlated. Considerable variations in pitfall catches at temporal scales of a few days appeared to be closely related to weather conditions and rotational grazing. However, despite considerable variation in absolute abundances between consecutive days of sampling, assemblage structure typically remained very similar. The relationship between dung pad size and dung beetle colonisation was investigated. In field experiments in which pads of different sizes (0.25 L, 0.5 L, 1.0 L and 1.5 L) were artificially deposited, there was a positive relationship between pad size and both biomass and number of beetles colonising dung pads and pitfall traps. In addition, with one exception, the field experiments indicated a general positive relationship between dung pad size and biomass density (dung beetle biomass per unit dung volume). A laboratory experiment indicated that pat residence times of A. rufipes were significantly correlated with dung pad size. Investigation of naturally-deposited cow dung pads in the field also indicated that both larval numbers and densities were significantly correlated with dung pad size. These results were discussed in the context of theory related to aggregation and coexistence of species, and resource utilisation by organisms in ephemeral, patchy resources. The colonisation by dung beetles of dung types from native herbivores (sheep, horse and cow) was investigated in field experiments. There were significant differences between the dung types in the chemical parameters measured, and there were significant differences in abundances of dung beetles colonising the dung types. Sheep dung was typically the preferred dung type. Data from these field experiments, and from published literature, indicated that dung beetle species can display dung type preferences, in terms of comparisons of both absolute and relative abundances. In addition, data from laboratory experiments indicate that both Aphodius larval production and pat residence times tended to be higher in those dung types which were preferred by adult Aphodius in the colonisation experiments. Data from dung-baited pitfall trapping (from this and another study) at several sites (up to 180 km distant) and over a number of years (between 1991 and 1996) were used to investigate spatial and temporal variation in dung beetle assemblage structure and composition (Aphodius, Sphaeridium and Geotrupes) across a range of scales in southern Ireland. Species richness levels, species composition and rank order of abundances were very similar between the assemblages. The temporal variability between seasons within any year exceeded temporal variability between years. DCA ordinations indicated that there was a similar level of variability between assemblage structure from the between-field (~1km) to regional (~180 km) spatial scales, and between year (6 years) temporal scales. At the biogeographical spatial scale, analysis of data from the literature indicated that there was considerable variability at this scale, largely due to species turnover.

The effect of conservation measures on the spatial and temporal variation of rocky fish assemblages in the Arrábida Marine Park

Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been widely proposed for conservation purposes and as a tool for fisheries management. The Arrábida Marine Park is the first MPA in continental Portugal having a management plan, fully implemented since 2009. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of protection measures on rocky reef fish assemblages and target invertebrates through before-after and control-effect (no-take vs. fished areas) underwater visual surveys and analysis of landings trends. Second, we used surveys before, during and after implementation of the management plan to understand fishers‟ preferences for fishing grounds and adaptation to the new rules, and evaluated the reserve effect through analysis of both ecological responses and fishing effort density. Third, we identified the main oceanographic drivers influencing the structure of reef fish assemblages and predicted the community structure for the last 50 years, in light of climatic change. Overall results suggest positive responses in biomass but not yet in numbers of some commercial species, with no effects on non-target species. The reserve effect is reinforced by the increase in landings of commercial species, despite increased fishing effort density in some areas, especially with octopus traps. Fishing grounds are mainly chosen based on the distribution of target species and associated habitats, but distance to port, weather conditions and safety also influence fishers‟ choices. Moreover, different fisheries respond differently to the protection measures, and within each fishery, individual fishers show distinct strategies, with some operating in a broader area whereas others keep preferred territories. Our results also show that wind stress and temperature are the main oceanographic drivers for rocky reef fish assemblages, with tropicalization of assemblages and polewards movements of species over the last 50 years consistent with temperature trends. We believe this study provides significant lessons for marine conservation and management of coastal systems.

“Spatial and Temporal Variation of Phytoplankton Community and Their Growth Limiting Factors in Cochin Backwater”

The influence of salinity on phytoplankton varies widely, because different species have different salinity preferences. Like marine and aquatic species, many phytoplankton species exhibit tolerance to certain salinity, beyond which, it can inhibit their growth. Light is the most important factor that influences phytoplankton growth. In aquatic environments (lakes, sea or estuary) the light incident on the surface is rapidly reduced exponentially with depth (Krik, 1994). In estuaries, the major factor influencing the light availability is the suspended particulate matter, which attenuates and scatters the light. The light changes with time of the day and the season, affecting the amount of light penetrating the water column. Similarly, biological factor like copepod grazing is a major factor influencing the standing crop of phytoplankton. The copepod can actively graze up to 75% of the phytoplankton biomass in a tropical estuary (Tan et. al., 2004). It is in the context that the present study investigates the salinity, light (physical factors) and copepod grazing (biological factor) phytoplankton as the factors controlling phytoplankton growth and distribution

Distribuição espaço-temporal da ictiofauna de poças de maré de um estuário amazônico: interação de fatores

A ictiofauna de poças de maré tem sido bem estudada em regiões temperadas e tropicais do Pacifico. No Brasil, ainda é incipiente o conhecimento ecológico das poças de maré e das assembléias de peixes que as habitam. O presente estudo pretendeu investigar a composição e distribuição espaço-temporal das assembléias de peixes associadas às poças de maré em habitats de afloramento rochoso, floresta de mangue e marismas da Ilha do Areuá, estuário inferior do rio Curuçá, Norte do Brasil. Amostragens trimestrais foram realizadas entre fevereiro e novembro de 2009, durante a maré baixa de sizígia (lua nova), utilizando metodologia padronizada. As variáveis ambientais sofreram modificações ao longo do gradiente vertical e foram responsáveis pela distribuição espacial e temporal da ictiofauna no afloramento rochoso. A salinidade, profundidade média e heterogeneidade do substrato foram as variáveis que mais explicaram as variações na distribuição da ictiofauna. A comparação entre os habitats de afloramento rochoso, floresta de mangue e marismas evidenciou que as assembléias de peixes do afloramento rochoso são claramente distintas daquela presente nos habitats vegetados (floresta de mangue e marismas). Os resultados deste estudo sugerem que há preferências pela ictiofauna por determinados habitats em função das variáveis ambientais e heterogeneidade do substrato, porém mais estudos devem ser realizados levando em consideração relações inter e intra-especificas.

Homogamy preferences for cognitive sex-typicality in women

Homogamy has been suggested as crucial for human mate preferences and mate choice. People are attracted to and choose romantic partners that are similar to them in socio-demographic, physical, and psychological traits. However, only a few studies have shown homogamy in preferences for evolved sex-typical traits. Here, we have investigated male and female preferences for the level of cognitive masculinity-femininity (MF). We tested whether self-reported MF positively correlates with preferences for MF. One hundred men and one hundred women from Brazil filled in questionnaires on their own level of cognitive MF and preferred level of cognitive MF in their ideal partner. Half of the respondents were asked to indicate their preferences for long-term, and the other half for short-term relationships. We found a positive correlation between self-ascribed and preferred level of cognitive MF in women (P = 0.002), but no significant correlation in men (P = 0.309). There was no significant effect of the temporal context of the relationship, but there was a positive correlation between self-ascribed and preferred level of cognitive MF only in women answering about long-term partner. By subtracting the preferred from the selfascribed level of cognitive MF, we created a self-similarity index. We found that women desire potential mates more self-similar and more masculine than men (P < 0.001) and that in men there is greater variation in the self-similarity index than in women. Our results thus add to previous evidence on the role of homogamy in human mating, by showing preferences for self-similarity also in cognitive MF for women, especially for long-term partner preferences. Future studies should cross-culturally test whether the higher self-similar preference found in women is universal.

Temporal and spatial variation in temperature experienced by macrofauna at main endeavour Hydrothermal vent field

A significant focus of hydrothermal vent ecological studies has been to understand how species cope with various stressors through physiological tolerance and biochemical resistance. Yet, the environmental conditions experienced by vent species have not been well characterized. This objective requires continuous observations over time intervals that can capture environmental variability at scales that are relevant to animals. We used autonomous temperature logger arrays (four roughly parallel linear arrays of 12 loggers spaced every 10–12 cm) to study spatial and temporal variations in the thermal regime experienced by hydrothermal vent macrofauna at a diffuse flow vent. Hourly temperatures were recorded over eight months from 2010 to 2011 at Grotto vent in the Main Endeavour vent field on the Juan de Fuca Ridge, a focus area of the Ocean Networks Canada cabled observatory. The conspicuous animal assemblages in video footage contained Ridgeia piscesae tubeworms, gastropods (primarily Lepetodrilus fucensis), and polychaetes (polynoid scaleworms and the palm worm Paralvinella palmiformis). Two dimensional spatial gradients in temperature were generally stable over the deployment period. The average temperature recorded by all arrays, and in some individual loggers, revealed distinctive fluctuations in temperature that often corresponded with the tidal cycle. We postulate that this may be related to changes in bottom currents or fluctuations in vent discharge. A marked transient temperature increase lasting over a period of days was observed in April 2011. While the distributions and behavior of Juan de Fuca Ridge vent invertebrates may be partially constrained by environmental temperature and temperature tolerance, except for the one transient high-temperature event, observed fluid temperatures were generally similar to the thermal preferences for some species, and typically well below lethal temperatures for all species. Average temperatures of the four arrays ranged from 4.1 to 11.0 °C during the deployment, indicating that on an hourly timescale the temperature conditions in this tubeworm community were fairly moderate and stable. The generality of these findings and behavioural responses of vent organisms to predictable rhythmicity and non-periodic temperature shifts are areas for further investigation

Tourism Destination Preferences: A Longitudinal Analysis of Consumer Decision Sets

There have only been a small number of applications of consumer decision set theory to holiday destination choice, and these studies have tended to rely on a single cross sectional snapshot of research participants’ stated preferences. Very little has been reported on the relationship between stated destination preferences and actual travel, or changes in decision set composition over time. The paper presents a rare longitudinal examination of destination decision sets, in the context of short break holidays by car in Queensland, Australia. Two questionnaires were administered, three months apart. The first identified destination preferences while the second examined actual travel and revisited destination preferences. In relation to the conference theme, there was very little change in consumer preferences towards the competitive set of destinations over the three month period. A key implication for the destination of interest, which, in an attempt to change market perceptions, launched a new brand campaign during the period of the project, is that a long term investment in a consistent brand message will be required to change market perceptions. The results go some way to support the proposition that the positioning of a destination into a consumer’s decision set represents a source of competitive advantage.