药蒲公英(Taraxacum officinale Weber)体外再生体系的建立、耐盐愈伤组织筛选和抗盐基因转化

药蒲公英(Taraxacum officinale Weber)是菊科蒲公英属的模式种，主要分布于欧洲和北美，在我国新疆也有少量分布。与Taraxacum mongolicum Hand-Mazz(我国中药市场的主流种和主要自然分布种)相比，药蒲公英的生物量更大，作为营养保健蔬菜具有更大的市场价值。药蒲公英的组织培养工作是开展基础研究的有力工具，本工作中，药蒲公英叶片外植体在含0.2mg/L IAA和1.0mg/L TDZ的MS培养基中培养2周后便产生大量的丛生芽，在含有0.5mg/L 2,4-D和2mg/L6-BA的MS培养基中培养30天后，形成明显的愈伤组织，愈伤组织块在含1.0mg/L 6-BA的MS培养基中成功再生。 体细胞无性系变异是植物愈伤组织培养中的普遍现象，我们将继代6次的愈伤组织接种于含盐培养基，得到了能够耐受1.0%NaCl的细胞系。耐盐细胞系在含盐培养基中的相对生长率和细胞活力明显高于对照（非耐盐细胞系接种于含盐培养基），由耐盐细胞系在含盐培养基中获得再生植株的工作正在进行。 直接不定芽再生途径对遗传物质具有高度保真性，是遗传转化的理想体系。我们利用此再生系统，将来源于耐盐植物山菠菜(Atriplex hortensis L.)BADH基因通过农杆菌介导的叶盘转化法导入药蒲公英，获得了PCR检测成阳性的转基因植株5株，从而建立了药蒲公英的转化体系。转基因植株的其他分子检测和耐盐性鉴定工作正在进行。

药蒲公英（Taraxacum officinale weber）耐盐变异体的筛选及其耐盐性分析研究

以药蒲公英（Taraxacum officinale Weber）叶片外植体为材料诱导愈伤组织。以NaCl作为选择因子，从愈伤组织直接筛选。在选择培养基上，大部分愈伤组织褐化死亡，在一些褐化死亡的愈伤组织周围有少量新的细胞团生长，挑选生长存活状况好的细胞团转接到新鲜培养基上，每3周继代一次，经3个月继代筛选获得了耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英细胞团。以普通愈伤为对照，发现随着NaCl浓度的升高，耐盐愈伤的相对生长率下降但显著高于对照;且随着盐胁迫处理时间的延长持续升高，而普通愈伤对照几乎停止生长，说明耐盐愈伤具有相对稳定的耐盐性。在蛋白水平上，耐盐愈伤与对照愈伤差异明显，SDS-PAGE分析显示：耐盐愈伤比对照多出一条34 KD大小的蛋白带，且30 KD，18 KD左右的蛋白带明显上调。相同处理条件下耐盐愈伤脯氨酸的增加幅度高于对照。盐胁迫条件下，耐盐愈伤的超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、过氧化物酶（POD）和过氧化氢酶（CAT）活性明显高于对照，且随着处理时间的延长和盐浓度的增加呈现升高的趋势，而对照则呈现先升高后下降的趋势。1.5% NaCl处理前后，耐盐愈伤的总黄酮含量显著高于对照。结果说明耐盐愈伤一方面通过积累蛋白和其他小分子有机溶质的方式调节其渗透平衡，另一方面还可通过提高抗氧化能力降低盐分造成的次级伤害。 将耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英愈伤组织接种在分化培养基上分化出芽，之后将再生芽转接到生根培养基中进行生根培养，经4个月得到了12株耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英再生植株。与野生型相比，耐盐植株叶片宽大、叶柄粗短、叶表面覆盖白色细毛，根粗壮较短，花茎中部具有2 cm左右的苞叶。RAPD和SDS-PAGE检测表明，耐盐植株与对照植株在DNA及蛋白水平上均存在明显差异。1.5% NaCl处理后，与普通再生植株相比，耐盐株系的抗氧化酶活性明显提高，脯氨酸含量上升幅度更为显著，而丙二醛含量降低，其主要药用成分黄酮的含量显著增加。这些结果说明耐盐植株的抗氧化防御能力明显增强。以上结果表明耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英再生植株为耐1.5% NaCl药蒲公英变异体，这些耐盐变异体有望成为抗盐耐海水蔬菜家族的新成员。同时，这些耐盐变异体植株比普通植株具有更高的医用商业价值。耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英再生变异体遗传稳定性的研究正在进行中。

Identification, quantification, spatiotemporal distribution and genetic variation of major latex secondary metabolites in the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale agg.)

The secondary metabolites in the roots, leaves and flowers of the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale agg.) have been studied in detail. However, little is known about the specific constituents of the plant’s highly specialized laticifer cells. Using a combination of liquid and gas chromatography, mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry, we identified and quantified the major secondary metabolites in the latex of different organs across different growth stages in three genotypes, and tested the activity of the metabolites against the generalist root herbivore Diabrotica balteata. We found that common dandelion latex is dominated by three classes of secondary metabolites: phenolic inositol esters (PIEs), triterpene acetates (TritAc) and the sesquiterpene lactone taraxinic acid β-d-glucopyranosyl ester (TA-G). Purification and absolute quantification revealed concentrations in the upper mg g−1 range for all compound classes with up to 6% PIEs, 5% TritAc and 7% TA-G per gram latex fresh weight. Contrary to typical secondary metabolite patterns, concentrations of all three classes increased with plant age. The highest concentrations were measured in the main root. PIE profiles differed both quantitatively and qualitatively between plant genotypes, whereas TritAc and TA-G differed only quantitatively. Metabolite concentrations were positively correlated within and between the different compound classes, indicating tight biosynthetic co-regulation. Latex metabolite extracts strongly repelled D. balteata larvae, suggesting that the latex constituents are biologically active.

A Latex Metabolite Benefits Plant Fitness under Root Herbivore Attack

Plants produce large amounts of secondary metabolites in their shoots and roots and store them in specialized secretory structures. Although secondary metabolites and their secretory structures are commonly assumed to have a defensive function, evidence that they benefit plant fitness under herbivore attack is scarce, especially below ground. Here, we tested whether latex secondary metabolites produced by the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale agg.) decrease the performance of its major native insect root herbivore, the larvae of the common cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha), and benefit plant vegetative and reproductive fitness under M. melolontha attack. Across 17 T. officinale genotypes screened by gas and liquid chromatography, latex concentrations of the sesquiterpene lactone taraxinic acid β-D-glucopyranosyl ester (TA-G) were negatively associated with M. melolontha larval growth. Adding purified TA-G to artificial diet at ecologically relevant concentrations reduced larval feeding. Silencing the germacrene A synthase ToGAS1, an enzyme that was identified to catalyze the first committed step of TA-G biosynthesis, resulted in a 90% reduction of TA-G levels and a pronounced increase in M. melolontha feeding. Transgenic, TA-G-deficient lines were preferred by M. melolontha and suffered three times more root biomass reduction than control lines. In a common garden experiment involving over 2,000 T. officinale individuals belonging to 17 different genotypes, high TA-G concentrations were associated with the maintenance of high vegetative and reproductive fitness under M. melolontha attack. Taken together, our study demonstrates that a latex secondary metabolite benefits plants under herbivore attack, a result that provides a mechanistic framework for root herbivore driven natural selection and evolution of plant defenses below ground.

A below-ground herbivore shapes root defensive chemistry in natural plant populations

Plants display extensive intraspecific variation in secondary metabolites. However, the selective forces shaping this diversity remain often unknown, especially below ground. Using Taraxacum officinale and its major native insect root herbivore Melolontha melolontha, we tested whether below-ground herbivores drive intraspecific variation in root secondary metabolites. We found that high M. melolontha infestation levels over recent decades are associated with high concentrations of major root latex secondary metabolites across 21 central European T. officinale field populations. By cultivating offspring of these populations, we show that both heritable variation and phenotypic plasticity contribute to the observed differences. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the production of the sesquiterpene lactone taraxinic acid β-d-glucopyranosyl ester (TA-G) is costly in the absence, but beneficial in the presence of M. melolontha, resulting in divergent selection of TA-G. Our results highlight the role of soil-dwelling insects for the evolution of plant defences in nature.

Aboveground community and species-specific plant biomass from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment, year 2004)

This data set contains aboveground community biomass (Sown plant community, Weed plant community, Dead plant material, and Unidentified plant material; all measured in biomass as dry weight) and species-specific biomass from the sown species of the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Aboveground community biomass was harvested twice in 2004 just prior to mowing (during peak standing biomass in late May and in late August) on all experimental plots of the main experiment. This was done by clipping the vegetation at 3 cm above ground in four rectangles of 0.2 x 0.5 m per large plot. The location of these rectangles was assigned prior to each harvest by random selection of coordinates within the core area of the plots (i.e. the central 10 x 15 m). The positions of the rectangles within plots were identical for all plots. The harvested biomass was sorted into categories: individual species for the sown plant species, weed plant species (species not sown at the particular plot), detached dead plant material (i.e., dead plant material in the data file), and remaining plant material that could not be assigned to any category (i.e., unidentified plant material in the data file). All biomass was dried to constant weight (70°C, >= 48 h) and weighed. Sown plant community biomass was calculated as the sum of the biomass of the individual sown species. The data for individual samples and the mean over samples for the biomass measures on the community level are given. Overall, analyses of the community biomass data have identified species richness as well as functional group composition as important drivers of a positive biodiversity-productivity relationship.

Tres nuevas citas de trips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) para la Argentina y clave de los géneros de la familia Thripidae presentes en el país

Tres especies de trips se citan por primera vez para la Argentina. Scirtothrips inermis y Scolothrips pallidus se recolectaron sobre Viburnum tinus en la provincia de Mendoza. La primera de ellas es fitófaga y potencial plaga de citrus y la segunda es una especie benéfica y preda ácaros. También se registra por primera vez Thrips trehernei sobre Taraxacum officinale en Buenos Aires. Se elabora una clave para los géneros de la familia Thripidae en la Argentina. Asimismo, se presentan claves para las especies de los géneros Thrips y Scirtothrips en Argentina.

Aboveground community and species-specific plant biomass from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment, year 2007)

This data set contains aboveground community biomass (Sown plant community, Weed plant community, Dead plant material, and Unidentified plant material; all measured in biomass as dry weight) and species-specific biomass from the sown species of the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Aboveground community biomass was harvested twice in 2007 just prior to mowing (during peak standing biomass in early June and in late August) on all experimental plots of the main experiment. This was done by clipping the vegetation at 3 cm above ground in four (May) or three (August) rectangles of 0.2 x 0.5 m per large plot. The location of these rectangles was assigned prior to each harvest by random selection of coordinates within the core area of the plots (i.e. the central 10 x 15 m). The positions of the rectangles within plots were identical for all plots. The harvested biomass was sorted into categories: individual species for the sown plant species, weed plant species (species not sown at the particular plot), detached dead plant material (i.e., dead plant material in the data file), and remaining plant material that could not be assigned to any category (i.e., unidentified plant material in the data file). All biomass was dried to constant weight (70°C, >= 48 h) and weighed. Sown plant community biomass was calculated as the sum of the biomass of the individual sown species. The data for individual samples and the mean over samples for the biomass measures on the community level are given. Overall, analyses of the community biomass data have identified species richness as well as functional group composition as important drivers of a positive biodiversity-productivity relationship.

Aboveground community and species-specific plant biomass from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment, year 2006)

This data set contains aboveground community biomass (Sown plant community, Weed plant community, Dead plant material, and Unidentified plant material; all measured in biomass as dry weight) and species-specific biomass from the sown species of the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Aboveground community biomass was harvested twice in 2006 just prior to mowing (during peak standing biomass in early June and in late August) on all experimental plots of the main experiment. This was done by clipping the vegetation at 3 cm above ground in four rectangles of 0.2 x 0.5 m per large plot. The location of these rectangles was assigned prior to each harvest by random selection of coordinates within the core area of the plots (i.e. the central 10 x 15 m). The positions of the rectangles within plots were identical for all plots. The harvested biomass was sorted into categories: individual species for the sown plant species, weed plant species (species not sown at the particular plot), detached dead plant material (i.e., dead plant material in the data file), and remaining plant material that could not be assigned to any category (i.e., unidentified plant material in the data file). All biomass was dried to constant weight (70°C, >= 48 h) and weighed. Sown plant community biomass was calculated as the sum of the biomass of the individual sown species. The data for individual samples and the mean over samples for the biomass measures on the community level are given. Overall, analyses of the community biomass data have identified species richness as well as functional group composition as important drivers of a positive biodiversity-productivity relationship.

Análisis de comunidades vegetales de Montecaseros (Gral. San Martín, Mendoza) en áreas naturales fragmentadas por la agricultura

El área estudiada abarca 250 has en el distrito de Montecaseros, Departamento de Gral. San Martín, Mendoza; enclavada en la llanura norte (Travesía de Guanacache) y su vegetación natural pertenece a la provincia fitogeográfica del Monte. El principal uso del suelo es la agricultura, aunque no ha logrado modificar todo el territorio. Se observan, en una matriz dominada por áreas cultivadas, parches de vegetación natural característicos de un área fragmentada. El objetivo de esta tesis es el análisis de las comunidades vegetales naturales de un sector de la llanura mendocina, fragmentadas por la actividad agrícola. En Montecaseros no hay antecedentes sobre estudios de las comunidades vegetales. Mediante el método fitosociológico se caracterizaron las comunidades presentes en el área de estudio y su diversidad a nivel específico. Se seleccionaron sitios representativos de cada comunidad y se efectuaron los análisis de suelo pertinentes en cada una. Finalmente se elaboró el listado florístico de la zona estudiada, con 108 especies. Se diferenciaron seis comunidades vegetales a lo largo de un gradiente, desde la máxima modificación en 1) las parcelas cultivadas, hasta la vegetación prácticamente sin evidencias de alteración: 2) médanos, 3) matorral, 4) chañaral y 5) algarrobal, incluyendo parcelas desmontadas, cultivadas y luego abandonadas identificadas como 6) parcela en recuperación. La fisonomía dominante en la zona es la del matorral con especies de los géneros Larrea, Atriplex y Lycium. Los bosquecillos de Prosopis flexuosa son de escasa extensión (abiertos, semi cerrados o cerrados) localizados donde pueden usufructuar la capa freática. En las áreas con suelo de textura más fina, al pie de médanos o en zonas deprimidas se desarrollan bosquecillos de Geoffroea decorticans var. decorticans. En los médanos la vegetación psamófila está bien representada con especies como Portulaca grandiflora, Ibicella parodii, Mimosa ephedroides, Larrea divaricata y Panicum urvilleanum. En áreas cultivadas se hallan especies adventicias dependientes de un buen aporte hídrico como Melilotus albus o Taraxacum officinale y aquellas capaces de sobrevivir y reproducirse en condiciones menos favorables como Flaveria bidentis o Wedelia glauca. En la parcela en recuperación, el desmonte, el laboreo y el posterior abandono de los cultivos hace 25 años generaron nuevas condiciones edáficas y la revegetación natural resulta en comunidades con composición florística diferente de la inicial. En este sector, el matorral original se ha transformado en una estepa de arbustos, halófilos en parte, y gramíneas junto con árboles jóvenes de pequeño porte. Se concluye que las limitaciones edáficas existentes naturalmente en el terreno se ven agravadas por el laboreo y el abandono del cultivo, situación que dificulta el reingreso a la parcela de varias de las especies presentes en los alrededores, aún siendo éstas halófilas. Con los resultados obtenidos se aporta información sobre las comunidades vegetales presentes en sitios fragmentados por la actividad agrícola en la zona este de Mendoza. Además, se demuestra la necesidad de aplicar etodologías de evaluación previas al desmonte, que permitan el reconocimiento y valoración de las especies indicadoras de las limitaciones edáficas. Esto es particularmente importante dado que estas últimas dificultan o encarecen el establecimiento de determinados cultivos y afectan su productividad. Asimismo el trabajo realizado pone en valor la conservación de comunidades naturales en áreas fragmentadas privadas.

Plants growing near the cargo packing station, and seed occurrence in cargo and luggage destined for Gough and Marion Island and the Antarctic

Globalization has resulted in unprecedented movements of people, goods, and alien species across the planet. Although the impacts of biological invasions are widely appreciated, a bias exists in research effort to post-dispersal processes because of the difficulties of measuring propagule pressure. The Antarctic provides an ideal model system in which to investigate propagule movements because of the region's isolation and small number of entry routes. Here we investigated the logistics operations of the South African National Antarctic Programme (SANAP) and quantified the initial dispersal of alien species into the region. we found that over 1400 seeds from 99 taxa are transported into the Antarctic each field season in association with SANAP passenger luggage and cargo. The first ever assessment of propagule drop-off indicated that 30-50% of these propagules will enter the recipient environment. Many of the taxa include cosmopolitan weeds and known aliens in the Antarctic, indicating that logistics operations form part of a globally self-perpetuating cycle moving alien species between areas of human disturbance. in addition, propagules of some taxa native to the Antarctic region were also found, suggesting that human movements may be facilitating intra-regional homogenization. Several relatively simple changes in biosecurity policy that could significantly reduce the threat of introduction of nonnative species are suggested.

Aboveground community and species-specific plant biomass from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment, year 2003)

This data set contains aboveground community biomass (Sown plant community, Weed plant community, Dead plant material, and Unidentified plant material; all measured in biomass as dry weight) and species-specific biomass from the sown species of the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Aboveground community biomass was harvested twice in 2003 just prior to mowing (during peak standing biomass in late May and in late August) on all experimental plots of the main experiment. This was done by clipping the vegetation at 3 cm above ground in four rectangles of 0.2 x 0.5 m per large plot. The location of these rectangles was assigned prior to each harvest by random selection of coordinates within the core area of the plots (i.e. the central 10 x 15 m). The positions of the rectangles within plots were identical for all plots. The harvested biomass was sorted into categories: individual species for the sown plant species, weed plant species (species not sown at the particular plot), detached dead plant material (i.e., dead plant material in the data file), and remaining plant material that could not be assigned to any category (i.e., unidentified plant material in the data file). All biomass was dried to constant weight (70°C, >= 48 h) and weighed. Sown plant community biomass was calculated as the sum of the biomass of the individual sown species. The data for individual samples and the mean over samples for the biomass measures on the community level are given. Overall, analyses of the community biomass data have identified species richness as well as functional group composition as important drivers of a positive biodiversity-productivity relationship.

Species-specific plant height along the plant diversity gradient in the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment, year 2002)

This data set contains measurements of species-specific plant height: vegetative height (non-flowering indviduals) and regenerative height (flowering individuals) measured for all sown species separetly in 2002. Data was recorded in the Main Experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the Main Experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. In 2002, plant height was recorded two times: in late July (vegetative height) and just before biomass harvest during peak standing biomass in late August (vegetative and regenerative height). For each plot and each sown species in the species pool, 3 plant individuals (if present) from the central area of the plots were randomly selected and used to measure vegetative height (non-flowering indviduals) and regenerative height (flowering individuals) as stretched height. Provided are the means over the three measuremnts per plant species per plot.