Monitoring and simulation of water, heat,and CO2 fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems based on the APEIS-FLUX system

The Integrated Environmental Monitoring (IEM) project, part of the Asia-Pacific Environmental Innovation Strategy (APEIS) project, developed an integrated environmental monitoring system that can be used to detect, monitor, and assess environmental disasters, degradation, and their impacts in the Asia-Pacific region. The system primarily employs data from the moderate resolution imaging spectrometer (MODIS) sensor on the Earth Observation System- (EOS-) Terra/Aqua satellite,as well as those from ground observations at five sites in different ecological systems in China. From the preliminary data analysis on both annual and daily variations of water, heat and CO2 fluxes, we can confirm that this system basically has been working well. The results show that both latent flux and CO2 flux are much greater in the crop field than those in the grassland and the saline desert, whereas the sensible heat flux shows the opposite trend. Different data products from MODIS have very different correspondence, e.g. MODIS-derived land surface temperature has a close correlation with measured ones, but LAI and NPP are quite different from ground measurements, which suggests that the algorithms used to process MODIS data need to be revised by using the local dataset. We are now using the APEIS-FLUX data to develop an integrated model, which can simulate the regional water,heat, and carbon fluxes. Finally, we are expected to use this model to develop more precise high-order MODIS products in Asia-Pacific region.

Large-scale spatial patterns in the distribution of Collembola (Hexapoda) species in Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems

We tested whether the distribution of three common springtail species (Gressittacantha terranova, Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni and Friesea grisea) in Victoria Land (Antarctica) could be modelled as a function of latitude, longitude, altitude and distance from the sea.

Victoria Land, Ross Dependency, Antarctica.

Generalized linear models were constructed using species presence/absence data relative to geographical features (latitude, longitude, altitude, distance from sea) across the species' entire ranges. Model results were then integrated with the known phylogeography of each species and hypotheses were generated on the role of climate as a major driver of Antarctic springtail distribution.

Based on model selection using Akaike's information criterion, the species' distributions were: hump-shaped relative to longitude and monotonic with altitude for Gressittacantha terranova; hump-shaped relative to latitude and monotonic with altitude for Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni; and hump-shaped relative to longitude and monotonic with latitude, altitude and distance from the sea for Friesea grisea.

No single distributional pattern was shared by the three species. While distributions were partially a response to climatic spatial clines, the patterns observed strongly suggest that past geological events have influenced the observed distributions. Accordingly, present-day spatial patterns are likely to have arisen from the interaction of historical and environmental drivers. Future studies will need to integrate a range of spatial and temporal scales to further quantify their respective roles.

Terrestrial ecosystems from space: a review of earth observation products for macroecology applications

Aim Earth observation (EO) products are a valuable alternative to spectral vegetation indices. We discuss the availability of EO products for analysing patterns in macroecology, particularly related to vegetation, on a range of spatial and temporal scales. Location Global. Methods We discuss four groups of EO products: land cover/cover change, vegetation structure and ecosystem productivity, fire detection, and digital elevation models. We address important practical issues arising from their use, such as assumptions underlying product generation, product accuracy and product transferability between spatial scales. We investigate the potential of EO products for analysing terrestrial ecosystems. Results Land cover, productivity and fire products are generated from long-term data using standardized algorithms to improve reliability in detecting change of land surfaces. Their global coverage renders them useful for macroecology. Their spatial resolution (e.g. GLOBCOVER vegetation, 300 m; MODIS vegetation and fire, ≥ 500 m; ASTER digital elevation, 30 m) can be a limiting factor. Canopy structure and productivity products are based on physical approaches and thus are independent of biome-specific calibrations. Active fire locations are provided in near-real time, while burnt area products show actual area burnt by fire. EO products can be assimilated into ecosystem models, and their validation information can be employed to calculate uncertainties during subsequent modelling. Main conclusions Owing to their global coverage and long-term continuity, EO end products can significantly advance the field of macroecology. EO products allow analyses of spatial biodiversity, seasonal dynamics of biomass and productivity, and consequences of disturbances on regional to global scales. Remaining drawbacks include inter-operability between products from different sensors and accuracy issues due to differences between assumptions and models underlying the generation of different EO products. Our review explains the nature of EO products and how they relate to particular ecological variables across scales to encourage their wider use in ecological applications.

Cadaver decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems

A dead mammal (i.e. cadaver) is a high quality resource (narrow carbon:nitrogen ratio, high water content) that releases an intense, localised pulse of carbon and nutrients into the soil upon decomposition. Despite the fact that as much as 5,000 kg of cadaver can be introduced to a square kilometre of terrestrial ecosystem each year, cadaver decomposition remains a neglected microsere. Here we review the processes associated with the introduction of cadaver-derived carbon and nutrients into soil from forensic and ecological settings to show that cadaver decomposition can have a greater, albeit localised, effect on belowground ecology than plant and faecal resources. Cadaveric materials are rapidly introduced to belowground floral and faunal communities, which results in the formation of a highly concentrated island of fertility, or cadaver decomposition island (CDI). CDIs are associated with increased soil microbial biomass, microbial activity (C mineralisation) and nematode abundance. Each CDI is an ephemeral natural disturbance that, in addition to releasing energy and nutrients to the wider ecosystem, acts as a hub by receiving these materials in the form of dead insects, exuvia and puparia, faecal matter (from scavengers, grazers and predators) and feathers (from avian scavengers and predators). As such, CDIs contribute to landscape heterogeneity. Furthermore, CDIs are a specialised habitat for a number of flies, beetles and pioneer vegetation, which enhances biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems.

Nitrous oxide emissions from selected natural and managed northern ecosystems

Microbial activity in soils is the main source of nitrous oxide (N2O) to the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide is a strong greenhouse gas in the troposphere and participates in ozone destructive reactions in the stratosphere. The constant increase in the atmospheric concentration, as well as uncertainties in the known sources and sinks of N2O underline the need to better understand the processes and pathways of N2O in terrestrial ecosystems. This study aimed at quantifying N2O emissions from soils in northern Europe and at investigating the processes and pathways of N2O from agricultural and forest ecosystems. Emissions were measured in forest ecosystems, agricultural soils and a landfill, using the soil gradient, chamber and eddy covariance methods. Processes responsible for N2O production, and the pathways of N2O from the soil to the atmosphere, were studied in the laboratory and in the field. These ecosystems were chosen for their potential importance to the national and global budget of N2O. Laboratory experiments with boreal agricultural soils revealed that N2O production increases drastically with soil moisture content, and that the contribution of the nitrification and denitrification processes to N2O emissions depends on soil type. Laboratory study with beech (Fagus sylvatica) seedlings demonstrated that trees can serve as conduits for N2O from the soil to the atmosphere. If this mechanism is important in forest ecosystems, the current emission estimates from forest soils may underestimate the total N2O emissions from forest ecosystems. Further field and laboratory studies are needed to evaluate the importance of this mechanism in forest ecosystems. The emissions of N2O from northern forest ecosystems and a municipal landfill were highly variable in time and space. The emissions of N2O from boreal upland forest soil were among the smallest reported in the world. Despite the low emission rates, the soil gradient method revealed a clear seasonal variation in N2O production. The organic topsoil was responsible for most of the N2O production and consumption in this forest soil. Emissions from the municipal landfill were one to two orders of magnitude higher than those from agricultural soils, which are the most important source of N2O to the atmosphere. Due to their small areal coverage, landfills only contribute minimally to national N2O emissions in Finland. The eddy covariance technique was demonstrated to be useful for measuring ecosystem-scale emissions of N2O in forest and landfill ecosystems. Overall, more measurements and integration between different measurement techniques are needed to capture the large variability in N2O emissions from natural and managed northern ecosystems.

Nitrogen deposition: how important is it for global terrestrial carbon uptake?

Global carbon budget studies indicate that the terrestrial ecosystems have remained a large sink for carbon despite widespread deforestation activities. CO2 fertilization, N deposition and re-growth of mid-latitude forests are believed to be key drivers for land carbon uptake. In this study, we assess the importance of N deposition by performing idealized near-equilibrium simulations using the Community Land Model 4.0 (CLM4). In our equilibrium simulations, only 12-17% of the deposited nitrogen is assimilated into the ecosystem and the corresponding carbon uptake can be inferred from a C : N ratio of 20 : 1. We calculate the sensitivity of the terrestrial biosphere for CO2 fertilization, climate warming and N deposition as changes in total ecosystem carbon for unit changes in global mean atmospheric CO2 concentration, global mean temperature and Tera grams of nitrogen deposition per year, respectively. Based on these sensitivities, it is estimated that about 242 PgC could have been taken up by land due to the CO2 fertilization effect and an additional 175 PgC taken up as a result of the increased N deposition since the pre-industrial period. Because of climate warming, the terrestrial ecosystem could have lost about 152 PgC during the same period. Therefore, since pre-industrial times terrestrial carbon losses due to warming may have been more or less compensated by effects of increased N deposition, whereas the effect of CO2 fertilization is approximately indicative of the current increase in terrestrial carbon stock. Our simulations also suggest that the sensitivity of carbon storage to increased N deposition decreases beyond current levels, indicating that climate warming effects on carbon storage may overwhelm N deposition effects in the future.

Quantifying seascape structure: extending terrestrial spatial pattern metrics to the marine realm

Spatial pattern metrics have routinely been applied to characterize and quantify structural features of terrestrial landscapes and have demonstrated great utility in landscape ecology and conservation planning. The important role of spatial structure in ecology and management is now commonly recognized, and recent advances in marine remote sensing technology have facilitated the application of spatial pattern metrics to the marine environment. However, it is not yet clear whether concepts, metrics, and statistical techniques developed for terrestrial ecosystems are relevant for marine species and seascapes. To address this gap in our knowledge, we reviewed, synthesized, and evaluated the utility and application of spatial pattern metrics in the marine science literature over the past 30 yr (1980 to 2010). In total, 23 studies characterized seascape structure, of which 17 quantified spatial patterns using a 2-dimensional patch-mosaic model and 5 used a continuously varying 3-dimensional surface model. Most seascape studies followed terrestrial-based studies in their search for ecological patterns and applied or modified existing metrics. Only 1 truly unique metric was found (hydrodynamic aperture applied to Pacific atolls). While there are still relatively few studies using spatial pattern metrics in the marine environment, they have suffered from similar misuse as reported for terrestrial studies, such as the lack of a priori considerations or the problem of collinearity between metrics. Spatial pattern metrics offer great potential for ecological research and environmental management in marine systems, and future studies should focus on (1) the dynamic boundary between the land and sea; (2) quantifying 3-dimensional spatial patterns; and (3) assessing and monitoring seascape change.

Quantifying global terrestrial carbon influx and storage as stimulated by an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration

EXTRACT (SEE PDF FOR FULL ABSTRACT): Measurements of spatial and temporal distributions of carbon dioxide concentration and carbon-13/carbon-12 ratio in the atmosphere suggest a strong biospheric carbon sink in terrestrial ecosystems. Quantifying the sink, however, has become an enormous challenge for Earth system scientists because of great uncertainties associated with biological variation and environmental heterogeneity in the ecosystems. This paper presents an approach that uses two driving parameters to bound terrestrial carbon sequestration associated with an increase in carbon dioxide concentration.

Modeling gross primary production of alpine ecosystems in the Tibetan Plateau using MODIS images and climate data

The eddy covariance technique provides measurements of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) Of CO2 between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems, which is widely used to estimate ecosystem respiration and gross primary production (GPP) at a number Of CO2 eddy flux tower sites. In this paper, canopy-level maximum light use efficiency, a key parameter in the satellite-based Vegetation Photosynthesis Model (VPM), was estimated by using the observed CO2 flux data and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) data from eddy flux tower sites in an alpine swamp ecosystem, an alpine shrub ecosystem and an alpine meadow ecosystem in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. The VPM model uses two improved vegetation indices (Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Land Surface Water Index (LSWI)) derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectral radiometer (MODIS) data and climate data at the flux tower sites, and estimated the seasonal dynamics of GPP of the three alpine grassland ecosystems in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The seasonal dynamics of GPP predicted by the VPM model agreed well with estimated GPP from eddy flux towers. These results demonstrated the potential of the satellite-driven VPM model for scaling-up GPP of alpine grassland ecosystems, a key component for the study of the carbon cycle at regional and global scales. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Identifying appropriate sampling and modelling approaches for analysing distributional patterns of Antarctic terrestrial arthropods along the Victoria Land latitudinal gradient

Biotic communities in Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems are relatively simple and often lack higher trophic levels (e. g. predators); thus, it is often assumed that species' distributions are mainly affected by abiotic factors such as climatic conditions, which change with increasing latitude, altitude and/or distance from the coast. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that factors other than geographical gradients affect the distribution of organisms with low dispersal capability such as the terrestrial arthropods. In Victoria Land (East Antarctica) the distribution of springtail (Collembola) and mite (Acari) species vary at scales that range from a few square centimetres to regional and continental. Different species show different scales of variation that relate to factors such as local geological and glaciological history, and biotic interactions, but only weakly with latitudinal/altitudinal gradients. Here, we review the relevant literature and outline more appropriate sampling designs as well as suitable modelling techniques (e. g. linear mixed models and eigenvector mapping), that will more adequately address and identify the range of factors responsible for the distribution of terrestrial arthropods in Antarctica.

Nitrogen processes in aquatic ecosystems

Executive summary Nature of the problem (science/management/policy) • Freshwater ecosystems play a key role in the European nitrogen (N) cycle, both as a reactive agent that transfers, stores and processes N loadings from the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems, and as a natural environment severely impacted by the increase of these loadings. Approaches • This chapter is a review of major processes and factors controlling N transport and transformations for running waters, standing waters, groundwaters and riparian wetlands. Key findings/state of knowledge • The major factor controlling N processes in freshwater ecosystems is the residence time of water, which varies widely both in space and in time, and which is sensitive to changes in climate, land use and management. • The effects of increased N loadings to European freshwaters include acidification in semi-natural environments, and eutrophication in more disturbed ecosystems, with associated loss of biodiversity in both cases. • An important part of the nitrogen transferred by surface waters is in the form of organic N, as dissolved organic N (DON) and particulate organic N (PON). This part is dominant in semi-natural catchments throughout Europe and remains a significant component of the total N load even in nitrate enriched rivers. • In eutrophicated standing freshwaters N can be a factor limiting or co-limiting biological production, and control of both N and phosphorus (P) loading is oft en needed in impacted areas, if ecological quality is to be restored. Major uncertainties/challenges • The importance of storage and denitrifi cation in aquifers is a major uncertainty in the global N cycle, and controls in part the response of catchments to land use or management changes. In some aquifers, the increase of N concentrations will continue for decades even if efficient mitigation measures are implemented now. • Nitrate retention by riparian wetlands has oft en been highlighted. However, their use for mitigation must be treated with caution, since their effectiveness is difficult to predict, and side effects include increased DON emissions to adjacent open waters, N2O emissions to the atmosphere, and loss of biodiversity. • In fact, the character and specific spatial origins of DON are not fully understood, and similarly the quantitative importance of indirect N2O emissions from freshwater ecosystems as a result of N leaching losses from agricultural soils is still poorly known at the regional scale. • These major uncertainties remain due to the lack of adequate monitoring (all forms of N at a relevant frequency), especially – but not only – in the southern and eastern EU countries. Recommendations (research/policy) • The great variability of transfer pathways, buffering capacity and sensitivity of the catchments and of the freshwater ecosystems calls for site specific mitigation measures rather than standard ones applied at regional to national scale. • The spatial and temporal variations of the N forms, the processes controlling the transport and transformation of N within freshwaters, require further investigation if the role of N in influencing freshwater ecosystem health is to be better understood, underpinning the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive for European freshwaters.

Soil biogenic emissions of nitric oxide from arid and semi-arid ecosystems

The biogenic production of NO in the soil accounts for between 10% and 40% of the global total. A large degree of the uncertainty in the estimation of the biogenic emissions stems from a shortage of measurements in arid regions, which comprise 40% of the earth’s land surface area. This study examined the emission of NO from three ecosystems in southern Africa which cover an aridity gradient from semi-arid savannas in South Africa to the hyper-arid Namib Desert in Namibia. A laboratory method was used to determine the release of NO as a function of the soil moisture and the soil temperature. Various methods were used to up-scale the net potential NO emissions determined in the laboratory to the vegetation patch, landscape or regional level. The importance of landscape, vegetation and climatic characteristics is emphasized. The first study occurred in a semi-arid savanna region in South Africa, where soils were sampled from 4 landscape positions in the Kruger National Park. The maximum NO emission occurred at soil moisture contents of 10%-20% water filled pore space (WFPS). The highest net potential NO emissions came from the low lying landscape positions, which have the largest nitrogen (N) stocks and the largest input of N. Net potential NO fluxes obtained in the laboratory were converted in field fluxes for the period 2003-2005, for the four landscape positions, using soil moisture and temperature data obtained in situ at the Kruger National Park Flux Tower Site. The NO emissions ranged from 1.5-8.5 kg ha-1 a-1. The field fluxes were up-scaled to a regional basis using geographic information system (GIS) based techniques, this indicated that the highest NO emissions occurred from the Midslope positions due to their large geographical extent in the research area. Total emissions ranged from 20x103 kg in 2004 to 34x103 kg in 2003 for the 56000 ha Skukuza land type. The second study occurred in an arid savanna ecosystem in the Kalahari, Botswana. In this study I collected soils from four differing vegetation patch types including: Pan, Annual Grassland, Perennial Grassland and Bush Encroached patches. The maximum net potential NO fluxes ranged from 0.27 ng m-2 s-1 in the Pan patches to 2.95 ng m-2 s-1 in the Perennial Grassland patches. The net potential NO emissions were up-scaled for the year December 2005-November 2006. This was done using 1) the net potential NO emissions determined in the laboratory, 2) the vegetation patch distribution obtained from LANDSAT NDVI measurements 3) estimated soil moisture contents obtained from ENVISAT ASAR measurements and 4) soil surface temperature measurements using MODIS 8 day land surface temperature measurements. This up-scaling procedure gave NO fluxes which ranged from 1.8 g ha-1 month-1 in the winter months (June and July) to 323 g ha-1 month-1 in the summer months (January-March). Differences occurred between the vegetation patches where the highest NO fluxes occurred in the Perennial Grassland patches and the lowest in the Pan patches. Over the course of the year the mean up-scaled NO emission for the studied region was 0.54 kg ha-1 a-1 and accounts for a loss of approximately 7.4% of the estimated N input to the region. The third study occurred in the hyper-arid Namib Desert in Namibia. Soils were sampled from three ecosystems; Dunes, Gravel Plains and the Riparian zone of the Kuiseb River. The net potential NO flux measured in the laboratory was used to estimate the NO flux for the Namib Desert for 2006 using modelled soil moisture and temperature data from the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) operational model on a 36km x 35km spatial resolution. The maximum net potential NO production occurred at low soil moisture contents (<10%WFPS) and the optimal temperature was 25°C in the Dune and Riparian ecosystems and 35°C in the Gravel Plain Ecosystems. The maximum net potential NO fluxes ranged from 3.0 ng m-2 s-1 in the Riparian ecosystem to 6.2 ng m-2 s-1 in the Gravel Plains ecosystem. Up-scaling the net potential NO flux gave NO fluxes of up to 0.062 kg ha-1 a-1 in the Dune ecosystem and 0.544 kg h-1 a-1 in the Gravel Plain ecosystem. From these studies it is shown that NO is emitted ubiquitously from terrestrial ecosystems, as such the NO emission potential from deserts and scrublands should be taken into account in the global NO models. The emission of NO is influenced by various factors such as landscape, vegetation and climate. This study looks at the potential emissions from certain arid and semi-arid environments in southern Africa and other parts of the world and discusses some of the important factors controlling the emission of NO from the soil.

Biogenic volatile organic compounds in tropical, temperate and boreal forest ecosystems

Biogene flüchtige organische Verbindungen (BFOV) werden in großen Mengen aus terrestrischenrnÖkosystemen, insbesondere aus Wäldern und Wiesen, in die untere Troposphäre emittiert. Austausch-rnFlüsse von BFOVs sind in der troposphärischen Chemie wichtig, weil sie eine bedeutende Rolle in derrnOzon- und Aerosolbildung haben. Trotzdem bleiben die zeitliche und räumliche Änderung der BFOVrnEmissionen und ihre Rolle in Bildung und Wachstum von Aerosolen ungewiss.rnDer Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt auf der in-situ Anwendung der Protonen Transfer ReaktionsrnMassenspektrometrie (PTR-MS) und der Messung von biogenen flüchtigen organischen Verbindungen inrnnordländischen, gemäßigten und tropischen Waldökosystemen während drei unterschiedlicherrnFeldmesskampagnen. Der Hauptvorteil der PTR-MS-Technik liegt in der hohen Messungsfrequenz,rnwodurch eine eventuelle Änderung in der Atmosphäre durch Transport, Vermischung und Chemiernonline beobachtet werden kann. Die PTR-MS-Messungen wurden zweimal am Boden aus und einmalrnvon einem Forschungsflugzug durchgeführt.rnIn Kapitel 3 werden die PTR-MS-Daten, gesammelt während der Flugmesskampagne über demrntropischen Regenwald, vorgelegt. Diese Studie zeigt den Belang der Grenzschichtdynamik für diernVerteilung von Spurengasen mittels eines eindimensionalen Säule - Chemie und KlimaModells (SCM).rnDer Tagesablauf von Isopren zeigte zwischen 14:00 und 16:15 Uhr lokaler Zeit einen Mittelwert vonrn5.4 ppbv auf der Höhe der Baumspitzen und von 3.3 ppbv über 300 m Höhe. Dies deutet darauf hin, dassrnsowohl der turbulente Austausch als auch die hohe Reaktionsfähigkeit von Isopren mit den OxidantienrnOH und Ozon eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Nach dem Ausgleich von chemischen Verlusten undrnEntrainment (Ein- und Ausmischung von Luft an der Grenzschicht), wurde ein Fluss vonrn8.4 mg Isopren m-2h-1 unter teilweise bewölkten Bedingungen für den tropischen Regenwald in derrnGuyanregion abgeschätzt. Dies entspricht einem täglichen Emissionsfluss von 28 mg Isopren prornQuadratmeter.rnIm Kapitel 4 werden die Messungen, welche auf einer Hügellage in gemäßigter Breite inrnsüddeutschland stattgefunden haben, diskutiert. Bei diesem Standort ist die Grenzschicht nachts unter diernStandorthöhe abgefallen, was den Einsatzort von Emissionen abgesondert hatte. Während diernGrenzschicht morgens wieder über die Höhe des Einsatzortes anstieg, konnten die eingeschlossenenrnnächtlichen Emissionen innerhalb der bodennahen Schicht beobachtet werden. Außerdem wurde einrndeutlicher Anstieg von flüchtigen organischen Verbindungen gemessen, wenn die Luftmassen überrnMünchen geführt wurden oder wenn verschmutzte Luftmassen aus dem Po-Tal über die Alpen nachrnDeutschland transportiert wurden. Daten von dieser Kampagne wurden genutzt, um die Änderungen inrndem Mischungsverhältnis der flüchtigen organischen Verbindungen, verbunden mit dem Durchfluss vonrnwarmen und kalten Wetterfronten sowie bei Regen zu untersuchen.rnIm Kapitel 5 werden PTR-MS-Messungen aus dem nördlichen Nadelwaldgürtel beschrieben. Starkernnächtliche Inversionen mit einer niedrigen Windgeschwindigkeit fingen die Emissionen vonrnnahegelegenen Kiefernwäldern und andere BFOV-Quellen ab, was zu hohen nächtlichen BFOVMischverhältnissenrnführte. Partikelereignisse wurden für Tag und Nacht detailliert analysiert. Diernnächtlichen Partikelereignisse erfolgten synchron mit starken extremen von Monoterpenen, obwohl dasrnzweite Ereignis Kernbildung einschloss und nicht mit Schwefelsäure korrelierte. Die MonoterpenrnMischungsverhältnisse von über 16 ppbv waren unerwartet hoch für diese Jahreszeit. NiedrigernWindgeschwindigkeiten und die Auswertung von Rückwärtstrajektorien deuten auf eine konzentrierternQuelle in der Nähe von Hyytiälä hin. Die optische Stereoisomerie von Monoterpenen hat bestätigt, dassrndie Quelle unnatürlich ist, da das Verhältnis von [(+)-α-pinen]/[(−)-α-pinen] viel höher ist als dasrnnatürliches Verhältnis der beiden Enantiomeren.

The effect of abrupt climatic warming on biogeochemical cycling and N2O emissions in a terrestrial ecosystem

The large, rapid increase in atmospheric N2O concentrations that occurred concurrent with the abrupt warming at the end of the Last Glacial period might have been the result of a reorganization in global biogeochemical cycles. To explore the sensitivity of nitrogen cycling in terrestrial ecosystems to abrupt warming, we combined a scenario of climate and vegetation composition change based on multiproxy data for the Oldest Dryas–Bølling abrupt warming event at Gerzensee, Switzerland, with a biogeochemical model that simulates terrestrial N uptake and release, including N2O emissions. As for many central European sites, the pollen record at the Gerzensee is remarkable for the abundant presence of the symbiotic nitrogen fixer Hippophaë rhamnoides (L.) during the abrupt warming that also marks the beginning of primary succession on immature glacial soils. Here we show that without additional nitrogen fixation, climate change results in a significant increase of N2O emissions of approximately factor 3.4 (from 6.4 ± 1.9 to 21.6 ± 5.9 mg N2O–N m− 2 yr− 1). Each additional 1000 mg m− 2 yr− 1 of nitrogen added to the ecosystem through N-fixation results in additional N2O emissions of 1.6 mg N2O–N m− 2 yr− 1 for the time with maximum H. rhamnoides coverage. Our results suggest that local reactions of emissions to abrupt climate change could have been considerably faster than the overall atmospheric concentration changes observed in polar ice. Nitrogen enrichment of soils due to the presence of symbiotic N-fixers during early primary succession not only facilitates the establishment of vegetation on soils in their initial stage of development, but can also have considerable influence on biogeochemical cycles and the release of reactive nitrogen trace gases to the atmosphere.