Surface-sampling and analysis of TATP by swabbing and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

The method of sample recovery for trace detection and identification of explosives plays a critical role in several criminal investigations. After bombing, there can be difficulties in sending big objects to a laboratory for analysis. Traces can also be searched for on large surfaces, on hands of suspects or on surfaces where the explosive was placed during preparatory phases (e.g. places where an IED was assembled, vehicles used for transportation, etc.). In this work, triacetone triperoxide (TATP) was synthesized from commercial precursors following reported methods. Several portions of about 6 mg of TATP were then spread on different surfaces (e.g. floors, tables, etc.) or used in handling tests. Three different swabbing systems were used: a commercial swab, pre-wetted with propan-2-ol (isopropanol) and water (7:3), dry paper swabs, and cotton swabs wetted with propan-2-ol. Paper and commercial swabs were also used to sample a metal plate, where a small charge of about 4 g of TATP was detonated. Swabs were sealed in small glass jars with screw caps and Parafilm® M and sent to the laboratory for analysis. Swabs were extracted and analysed several weeks later by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. All the three systems gave positive results, but wetted swabs collected higher amounts of TATP. The developed procedure showed its suitability for use in real cases, allowing TATP detection in several simulations, including a situation in which people wash their hands after handling the explosive.

Polyphenylendendrimere zur Gefahrstoffdetektion

Zusammenfassung: rnrn Die vorliegende Arbeit mit dem Thema „Polyphenylendendrimere zur Gefahrstoffdetektion“ ist hauptsächlich synthetisch orientiert und behandelt vor allem den Aufbau neuartiger innenfunktionalisierter Polyphenylendendrimer-Systeme durch die systematische Anwendung wiederholter Diels-Alder- bzw. Desilylierungs-Reaktionen. Diskutiert wird dabei die Synthese der dafür notwendigen Verzweigungsbausteine, die daraus hervorgehende Darstellung der verschiedenen Dendrimere sowie deren Charakterisierung. Als Referenz zu den monodispersen dendritischen Systemen werden parallel verschiedene hyperverzweigte Polymere mittels Diels-Alder-Reaktion bzw. Suzuki-Kupplung dargestellt und beide Makromolekül-Systeme im direkten Vergleich besprochen. Erstmals wird die Einbindung funktioneller Elemente, wie z.B. Triazol oder Pyren, synthetisch ermöglicht. Die dendritischen Systeme werden bis zur dritten Generation aufgebaut, im Fall des Ester-funktionalisierten Systems wird auch eine Darstellung der vierten Generation erreicht. Im Anschluss wird das supramolekulare Verhalten der erhaltenen dendritischen, wie auch polymeren Verbindungen mittels zweier unterschiedlicher Meßmethoden (QMB, ITC) gegenüber verschiedenen Lösungsmitteln und Gefahrstoffen untersucht. Dabei kann eine Diskrepanz im Einlagerungsverhalten der verschiedenen makromolekularen Strukturen gegenüber den verwendeten Gast-Molekülen beobachtet werden. Aufgrund der umfassenden systematischen Analyse aller getesteten Verbindungen wird ein tiefer greifendes Verständnis für die während des Einlagerungsprozesses verantwortlichen Wechselwirkungen aufgebaut. Dabei spielt die dreidimensionale Anordnung des dendritischen Gerüsts, resultierend aus der Polarität und dem sterischen Anspruch der eingebundenen funktionellen Gruppen eine entscheidende Rolle. Als Anwendungsbeispiel der dendritischen Strukturen wird die Verwendung eigens beschichteter Schwingquarze zur Detektion von Sprengstoffen, wie z. B. TATP, erläutert und eine daraus resultierende Steigerung der Sensibilität der Detektoren erklärt.rn

Identifikation und Beeinflussbarkeit supramolekularer Wechselwirkungen auf Quarzmikrowaagen

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasste sich mit der kompletten Bandbreite eines chemischen Sensors.rnIn einem ersten Schritt wurde die Desensibilisierung der Quarzmikrowaagen (QCM) gegenüber Störeinflüssen untersucht. Ausgehend von vorangegangenen Arbeiten konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine fluorige Modifikation der QCM-Elektroden die Affinität zu omnipräsenten Substanzen wie Wasser oder Alkanen stark herabsetzt. Neben der Desensibilisierung bewirkt die Schicht darüber hinaus vermutlich eine veränderte Ausrichtung der Affinitätsmaterialien auf der Oberfläche. Dies konnte durch die Anwendung auf einen TATP-Sensorsystem gezeigt werden.rnIm zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurden die vorherrschenden Arten supramolekularer Wechselwirkungen in Wirt-Gast-Systemen anhand gravimetrischer Messungen identifiziert. In Kooperation mit unterschiedlichen Forschergruppen konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass es möglich ist, diese Wechselwirkungen in einem gewissen Rahmen zu beeinflussen und damit die Sensorantworten zu steuern. Effekte wie die Hohlraumzugänglichkeit, die Hohlraumgröße sowie das chemische Milieu im Hohlraum wurden genauer untersucht.rnNeben dem Screening auf neue Affinitätsmaterialien konnten erste Erfolge bei der Übertragung der Erkenntnisse der letzten Jahre auf ein neues Sensorsystem erzielt werden. Zum Einsatz kam hierbei ein optisches Sensor-System basierend auf planaren Bragg-Gittern. Neben der Entwicklung einer geeigneten Messzelle wurde eine Beschichtung der Sensoren mit verschiedenen Cyclodextrin-Derivaten entwickelt.rnIm vierten Teil der Arbeit wurden Studien zur Synthese zweier Tetraphenylenderivate durchgeführt.rn

The development of optimized high performance liquid chromatography systems for the analysis of improvised explosives

Existing instrumental techniques must be adaptable to the analysis of novel explosives if science is to keep up with the practices of terrorists and criminals. The focus of this work has been the development of analytical techniques for the analysis of two types of novel explosives: ascorbic acid-based propellants, and improvised mixtures of concentrated hydrogen peroxide/fuel. In recent years, the use of these explosives in improvised explosive devices (IEDs) has increased. It is therefore important to develop methods which permit the identification of the nature of the original explosive from post-blast residues. Ascorbic acid-based propellants are low explosives which employ an ascorbic acid fuel source with a nitrate/perchlorate oxidizer. A method which utilized ion chromatography with indirect photometric detection was optimized for the analysis of intact propellants. Post-burn and post-blast residues if these propellants were analyzed. It was determined that the ascorbic acid fuel and nitrate oxidizer could be detected in intact propellants, as well as in the post-burn and post-blast residues. Degradation products of the nitrate and perchlorate oxidizers were also detected. With a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (QToFMS), exact mass measurements are possible. When an HPLC instrument is coupled to a QToFMS, the combination of retention time with accurate mass measurements, mass spectral fragmentation information, and isotopic abundance patterns allows for the unequivocal identification of a target analyte. An optimized HPLC-ESI-QToFMS method was applied to the analysis of ascorbic acid-based propellants. Exact mass measurements were collected for the fuel and oxidizer anions, and their degradation products. Ascorbic acid was detected in the intact samples and half of the propellants subjected to open burning; the intact fuel molecule was not detected in any of the post-blast residue. Two methods were optimized for the analysis of trace levels of hydrogen peroxide: HPLC with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD), and HPLC with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ED). Both techniques were extremely selective for hydrogen peroxide. Both methods were applied to the analysis of post-blast debris from improvised mixtures of concentrated hydrogen peroxide/fuel; hydrogen peroxide was detected on variety of substrates. Hydrogen peroxide was detected in the post-blast residues of the improvised explosives TATP and HMTD.

The Development of High Performance Liquid Chromatography Systems for the Analysis of Improvised Explosives

Existing instrumental techniques must be adaptable to the analysis of novel explosives if science is to keep up with the practices of terrorists and criminals. The focus of this work has been the development of analytical techniques for the analysis of two types of novel explosives: ascorbic acid-based propellants, and improvised mixtures of concentrated hydrogen peroxide/fuel. In recent years, the use of these explosives in improvised explosive devices (IEDs) has increased. It is therefore important to develop methods which permit the identification of the nature of the original explosive from post-blast residues. Ascorbic acid-based propellants are low explosives which employ an ascorbic acid fuel source with a nitrate/perchlorate oxidizer. A method which utilized ion chromatography with indirect photometric detection was optimized for the analysis of intact propellants. Post-burn and post-blast residues if these propellants were analyzed. It was determined that the ascorbic acid fuel and nitrate oxidizer could be detected in intact propellants, as well as in the post-burn and post-blast residues. Degradation products of the nitrate and perchlorate oxidizers were also detected. With a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (QToFMS), exact mass measurements are possible. When an HPLC instrument is coupled to a QToFMS, the combination of retention time with accurate mass measurements, mass spectral fragmentation information, and isotopic abundance patterns allows for the unequivocal identification of a target analyte. An optimized HPLC-ESI-QToFMS method was applied to the analysis of ascorbic acid-based propellants. Exact mass measurements were collected for the fuel and oxidizer anions, and their degradation products. Ascorbic acid was detected in the intact samples and half of the propellants subjected to open burning; the intact fuel molecule was not detected in any of the post-blast residue. Two methods were optimized for the analysis of trace levels of hydrogen peroxide: HPLC with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD), and HPLC with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ED). Both techniques were extremely selective for hydrogen peroxide. Both methods were applied to the analysis of post-blast debris from improvised mixtures of concentrated hydrogen peroxide/fuel; hydrogen peroxide was detected on variety of substrates. Hydrogen peroxide was detected in the post-blast residues of the improvised explosives TATP and HMTD.

The Development of Calibrants through Characterization of Volatile Organic Compounds from Peroxide Based Explosives and a Non-target Chemical Calibration Compound

Detection canines represent the fastest and most versatile means of illicit material detection. This research endeavor in its most simplistic form is the improvement of detection canines through training, training aids, and calibration. This study focuses on developing a universal calibration compound for which all detection canines, regardless of detection substance, can be tested daily to ensure that they are working with acceptable parameters. Surrogate continuation aids (SCAs) were developed for peroxide based explosives along with the validation of the SCAs already developed within the International Forensic Research Institute (IFRI) prototype surrogate explosives kit. Storage parameters of the SCAs were evaluated to give recommendations to the detection canine community on the best possible training aid storage solution that minimizes the likelihood of contamination. Two commonly used and accepted detection canine imprinting methods were also evaluated for the speed in which the canine is trained and their reliability. As a result of the completion of this study, SCAs have been developed for explosive detection canine use covering: peroxide based explosives, TNT based explosives, nitroglycerin based explosives, tagged explosives, plasticized explosives, and smokeless powders. Through the use of these surrogate continuation aids a more uniform and reliable system of training can be implemented in the field than is currently used today. By examining the storage parameters of the SCAs, an ideal storage system has been developed using three levels of containment for the reduction of possible contamination. The developed calibration compound will ease the growing concerns over the legality and reliability of detection canine use by detailing the daily working parameters of the canine, allowing for Daubert rules of evidence admissibility to be applied. Through canine field testing, it has been shown that the IFRI SCAs outperform other commercially available training aids on the market. Additionally, of the imprinting methods tested, no difference was found in the speed in which the canines are trained or their reliability to detect illicit materials. Therefore, if the recommendations discovered in this study are followed, the detection canine community will greatly benefit through the use of scientifically validated training techniques and training aids.