Enforcing dendritic cell vaccines by manipulating the MHC II antigen presentation pathway

Les vaccins à base de cellules dendritiques (DCs) constituent une avenue très populaire en immunothérapie du cancer. Alors que ces cellules peuvent présenter des peptides exogènes ajoutés au milieu, l’efficacité de chargement de ces peptides au le complexe majeur d'histocompatibilité (CMH) de classe II est limitée. En effet, la majorité des molécules du CMH II à la surface des DCs sont très stable et l’échange de peptide spontané est minime. Confinée aux vésicules endosomales, HLA-DM (DM) retire les peptides des molécules du CMH II en plus de leur accorder une conformation réceptive au chargement de peptides. Il est possible, cependant, de muter le signal de rétention de DM de façon à ce que la protéine s’accumule en surface. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que ce mutant de DM (DMY) sera aussi fonctionnel à la surface que dans la voie endosomale et qu’il favorisera le chargement de peptides exogènes aux DCs. Nous avons utilisé un vecteur adénoviral pour exprimer DMY dans des DCs et avons montrer que la molécule augmente le chargement de peptides. L’augmentation du chargement peptidique par DMY est autant qualitatif que quantitatif. DMY améliore la réponse T auxiliaire (Th) du coté Th1, ce qui favorise l’immunité anti-cancer. Du côté qualitatif, le chargement de peptides résulte en des complexes peptide-CMHII (pCMH) d’une conformation supérieure (conformère). Ce conformère (Type A) est le préféré pour la vaccination et DMY édite avec succès les complexes pCMH à la surface en éliminant ceux de type B, lesquels sont indésirables. La fonction de DM est régulée par HLA-DO (DO). Ce dernier inhibe l’habilité de DM à échanger le peptide CLIP (peptide dérivée de la chaîne invariante) en fonction du pH, donc dans les endosomes tardifs. Mes résultats indiquent que la surexpression de DO influence la présentation des superantigènes (SAgs) dépendants de la nature du peptide. Il est probable que DO améliore indirectement la liaison de ces SAgs au pCMH dû à l’accumulation de complexe CLIP-CMH, d’autant plus qu’il neutralise la polarisation Th2 normalement observée par CLIP. Ensemble, ces résultats indiquent que DMY est un outil intéressant pour renforcer le chargement de peptides exogènes sur les DCs et ainsi générer des vaccins efficaces. Un effet inattendu de DO sur la présentation de certains SAgs a aussi été observé. Davantage de recherche est nécessaire afin de résoudre comment DMY et DO influence la polarisation des lymphocytes T auxiliaires. Cela conduira à une meilleure compréhension de la présentation antigénique et de son étroite collaboration avec le système immunitaire.

Molecularly defined vaccines for cancer immunotherapy, and protective T cell immunity.

Malignant cells are frequently recognized and destroyed by T cells, hence the development of T cell vaccines against established tumors. The challenge is to induce protective type 1 immune responses, with efficient Th1 and CTL activation, and long-term immunological memory. These goals are similar as in many infectious diseases, where successful immune protection is ideally induced with live vaccines. However, large-scale development of live vaccines is prevented by their very limited availability and vector immunogenicity. Synthetic vaccines have multiple advantages. Each of their components (antigens, adjuvants, delivery systems) contributes specifically to induction and maintenance of T cell responses. Here we summarize current experience with vaccines based on proteins and peptide antigens, and discuss approaches for the molecular characterization of clonotypic T cell responses. With carefully designed step-by-step modifications of innovative vaccine formulations, T cell vaccination can be optimized towards the goal of inducing therapeutic immune responses in humans.

Decreased specific CD8+ T cell cross-reactivity of antigen recognition following vaccination with Melan-A peptide.

The aim of T cell vaccines is the expansion of antigen-specific T cells able to confer immune protection against pathogens or tumors. Although increase in absolute cell numbers, effector functions and TCR repertoire of vaccine-induced T cells are often evaluated, their reactivity for the cognate antigen versus their cross-reactive potential is rarely considered. In fact, little information is available regarding the influence of vaccines on T cell fine specificity of antigen recognition despite the impact that this feature may have in protective immunity. To shed light on the cross-reactive potential of vaccine-induced cells, we analyzed the reactivity of CD8(+) T cells following vaccination of HLA-A2(+) melanoma patients with Melan-A peptide, incomplete Freund's adjuvant and CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide adjuvant, which was shown to induce strong expansion of Melan-A-reactive CD8(+) T cells in vivo. A collection of predicted Melan-A cross-reactive peptides, identified from a combinatorial peptide library, was used to probe functional antigen recognition of PBMC ex vivo and Melan-A-reactive CD8(+) T cell clones. While Melan-A-reactive CD8(+) T cells prior to vaccination are usually constituted of widely cross-reactive naive cells, we show that peptide vaccination resulted in expansion of memory T cells displaying a reactivity predominantly restricted to the antigen of interest. Importantly, these cells are tumor-reactive.

Melanoma vaccines

Many vaccines have been very successful. They can protect from many different infectious diseases, and thus contribute enormously to public health. The majority of successful vaccines induce neutralizing antibodies, which are essential for protection from disease, by the inhibition of microbe invasion and spread through the body, via extracellular compartments, or by neutralization of toxins. In contrast to infectious diseases, the pathological process in cancer is primarily intracellular. Immunity to cancer depends mainly on T cells which are capable of identifying and eliminating abnormal cells, via recognition of peptide antigens presented by major histocompatibility complex molecules at the cell surface. In some instances, tumor-specific antibodies can contribute to immune defense against cancer. Unfortunately, for many solid tumors (including melanoma), this mechanism is insufficient. Nevertheless, the search for cancer-neutralizing antibodies continues, similar to, e.g., HIV neutralizing antibodies. In this chapter, we focus on the development of T cell vaccines, a great challenge but also a promising approach as a new therapy for melanoma, other cancers, and intracellular pathogens

In vivo administration of a lentiviral vaccine targets DCs and induces efficient CD8(+) T cell responses.

The present study evaluates the potential of third-generation lentivirus vectors with respect to their use as in vivo-administered T cell vaccines. We demonstrate that lentivector injection into the footpad of mice transduces DCs that appear in the draining lymph node and in the spleen. In addition, a lentivector vaccine bearing a T cell antigen induced very strong systemic antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses in mice. Comparative vaccination performed in two different antigen models demonstrated that in vivo administration of lentivector was superior to transfer of transduced DCs or peptide/adjuvant vaccination in terms of both amplitude and longevity of the CTL response. Our data suggest that a decisive factor for efficient T cell priming by lentivector might be the targeting of DCs in situ and their subsequent migration to secondary lymphoid organs. The combination of performance, ease of application, and absence of pre-existing immunity in humans make lentivector-based vaccines an attractive candidate for cancer immunotherapy.

Clinical studies of experimental vaccines.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The scope of this review is to provide the current status of HIV vaccine clinical development. A series of issues regarding the type of immune response stimulated by the candidate vaccines in the pipeline, the advances in the immune correlates of protection, the need for an effective decision-making process for selection of candidate vaccines into further clinical development and the rationale for clinical trials will also be discussed. RECENT FINDINGS: Efforts in the development of HIV vaccines inducing broad neutralizing antibodies have failed so far. The current pipeline is predominantly composed of candidate vaccines designed to induce cellular immunity and particularly T-cell response. For these reasons, these candidate vaccines have been termed 'T-cell vaccines'. A large number of candidate vaccines or vaccine combinations have entered phase I-II clinical trials in 2005. Furthermore, an adenovirus vector-based vaccine has entered proof-of-concept efficacy trial and a canarypox vector in combination with a protein-based vaccine is currently being evaluated in phase III clinical trials. T-cell vaccines have been shown to be safe and the most recent generation of these vaccines also has substantial immunogenicity. SUMMARY: Only clinical trials can provide the definitive answer to immune correlates of protection and vaccine efficacy.

Targeting the tumor vasculature to enhance T cell activity.

T cells play a critical role in tumor immune surveillance as evidenced by extensive mouse-tumor model studies as well as encouraging patient responses to adoptive T cell therapies and dendritic cell vaccines. It is well established that the interplay of tumor cells with their local cellular environment can trigger events that are immunoinhibitory to T cells. More recently it is emerging that the tumor vasculature itself constitutes an important barrier to T cells. Endothelial cells lining the vessels can suppress T cell activity, target them for destruction, and block them from gaining entry into the tumor in the first place through the deregulation of adhesion molecules. Here we review approaches to break this tumor endothelial barrier and enhance T cell activity.

CD8(+) T cell adjuvant effects of Salmonella FliCd flagellin in live vaccine vectors or as purified protein

Salmonella flagellin, the flagellum structural subunit, has received particular interest as a vaccine adjuvant conferring enhanced immunogenity to soluble proteins or peptides, both for activation of antibody and cellular immune responses. In the present study, we evaluated the Salmonella enterica FliCd flagellin as a T cell vaccine adjuvant using as model the 9-mer (SYVPSAEQI) synthetic H2(d)-restricted CD8(+) T cell-specific epitope (CS(280-288)) derived from the Plasmodium yoelii circumsporozoite (G) protein. The FliCd adjuvant effects were determined under two different conditions: (i) as recombinant flagella, expressed by orally delivered live S. Dublin vaccine strains expressing the target CS(280-288) peptide fused at the central hypervariable domain, and (ii) as purified protein in acellular vaccines in which flagellin was administered to mice either as a recombinant protein fused or admixed with the target CS(280-288) peptide. The results showed that CS(280-288)-specific cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells were primed when BALB/c mice were orally inoculated with the expressing the CS280-288 epitope S. Dublin vaccine strain. In contrast, mice immunized with purified FliCd admixed with the CS280-288 peptide and, to a lesser extent, fused with the target peptide developed specific cytotoxic CD8(+) T cell responses without the need of a heterologous booster immunization. The CD8(+) T cell adjuvant effects of flagellin, either fused or not with the target peptide, correlated with the in vivo activation of CD11c(+) dendritic cells. Taken together, the present results demonstrate that Salmonella flagellins are flexible adjuvant and induce adaptative immune responses when administered by different routes or vaccine formulations. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Molecular and immunological evaluation of the expression of cancer/testis gene products in human colorectal cancer.

Tumor-specific gene products, such as cancer/testis (CT) antigens, constitute promising targets for the development of T cell vaccines. Whereas CT antigens are frequently expressed in melanoma, their expression in colorectal cancers (CRC) remains poorly characterized. Here, we have studied the expression of the CT antigens MAGE-A3, MAGE-A4, MAGE-A10, NY-ESO-1 and SSX2 in CRC because of the presence of well-described HLA-A2-restricted epitopes in their sequences. Our analyses of 41 primary CRC and 14 metastatic liver lesions confirmed the low frequency of expression of these CT antigens. No increased expression frequencies were observed in metastatic tumors compared to primary tumors. Histological analyses of CRC samples revealed heterogeneous expression of individual CT antigens. Finally, evidence of a naturally acquired CT antigen-specific CD8(+) T cell response could be demonstrated. These results show that the expression of CT antigens in a subset of CRC patients induces readily detectable T cell responses.

Vaccination-induced functional competence of circulating human tumor-specific CD8 T-cells.

T-cells specific for foreign (e.g., viral) antigens can give rise to strong protective immune responses, whereas self/tumor antigen-specific T-cells are thought to be less powerful. However, synthetic T-cell vaccines composed of Melan-A/MART-1 peptide, CpG and IFA can induce high frequencies of tumor-specific CD8 T-cells in PBMC of melanoma patients. Here we analyzed the functionality of these T-cells directly ex vivo, by multiparameter flow cytometry. The production of multiple cytokines (IFNγ, TNFα, IL-2) and upregulation of LAMP-1 (CD107a) by tumor (Melan-A/MART-1) specific T-cells was comparable to virus (EBV-BMLF1) specific CD8 T-cells. Furthermore, phosphorylation of STAT1, STAT5 and ERK1/2, and expression of CD3 zeta chain were similar in tumor- and virus-specific T-cells, demonstrating functional signaling pathways. Interestingly, high frequencies of functionally competent T-cells were induced irrespective of patient's age or gender. Finally, CD8 T-cell function correlated with disease-free survival. However, this result is preliminary since the study was a Phase I clinical trial. We conclude that human tumor-specific CD8 T-cells can reach functional competence in vivo, encouraging further development and Phase III trials assessing the clinical efficacy of robust vaccination strategies.

Vaccination-induced functional competence of circulating human tumor-specific CD8 T-cells

T-cells specific for foreign (e.g., viral) antigens can give rise to strong protective immune responses, whereas self/tumor antigen-specific T-cells are thought to be less powerful. However, synthetic T-cell vaccines composed of Melan-A/MART-1 peptide, CpG and IFA can induce high frequencies of tumor-specific CD8 T-cells in PBMC of melanoma patients. Here we analyzed the functionality of these T-cells directly ex vivo, by multiparameter flow cytometry. The production of multiple cytokines (IFNγ, TNFα, IL-2) and upregulation of LAMP-1 (CD107a) by tumor (Melan-A/MART-1) specific T-cells was comparable to virus (EBV-BMLF1) specific CD8 T-cells. Furthermore, phosphorylation of STAT1, STAT5 and ERK1/2, and expression of CD3 zeta chain were similar in tumor- and virus-specific T-cells, demonstrating functional signaling pathways. Interestingly, high frequencies of functionally competent T-cells were induced irrespective of patient's age or gender. Finally, CD8 T-cell function correlated with disease-free survival. However, this result is preliminary since the study was a Phase I clinical trial. We conclude that human tumor-specific CD8 T-cells can reach functional competence in vivo, encouraging further development and Phase III trials assessing the clinical efficacy of robust vaccination strategies.

Targeting HIV proteins to the major histocompatibility complex class I processing pathway with a novel gp120-anthrax toxin fusion protein

A challenge for subunit vaccines whose goal is to elicit CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) is to deliver the antigen to the cytosol of the living cell, where it can be processed for presentation by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. Several bacterial toxins have evolved to efficiently deliver catalytic protein moieties to the cytosol of eukaryotic cells. Anthrax lethal toxin consists of two distinct proteins that combine to form the active toxin. Protective antigen (PA) binds to cells and is instrumental in delivering lethal factor (LF) to the cell cytosol. To test whether the lethal factor protein could be exploited for delivery of exogenous proteins to the MHC class I processing pathway, we constructed a genetic fusion between the amino-terminal 254 aa of LF and the gp120 portion of the HIV-1 envelope protein. Cells treated with this fusion protein (LF254-gp120) in the presence of PA effectively processed gp120 and presented an epitope recognized by HIV-1 gp120 V3-specific CTL. In contrast, when cells were treated with the LF254-gp120 fusion protein and a mutant PA protein defective for translocation, the cells were not able to present the epitope and were not lysed by the specific CTL. The entry into the cytosol and dependence on the classical cytosolic MHC class I pathway were confirmed by showing that antigen presentation by PA + LF254-gp120 was blocked by the proteasome inhibitor lactacystin. These data demonstrate the ability of the LF amino-terminal fragment to deliver antigens to the MHC class I pathway and provide the basis for the development of novel T cell vaccines.

Cytotoxic T cell polyepitope vaccines delivered by ISCOMs

CD8 alpha beta cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) polyepitope or polytope vaccines have traditionally been delivered using recombinant vector or DNA based delivery modalities. Here we show the delivery of polytope vaccines in the form of either synthetic polypeptides or recombinant polytope proteins by ImmunoStimulatory COMplexes (ISCOMs (R)). Induction of multiple protective CTL responses by these polytope-ISCOM formulations were comparable to viral vector or DNA based delivery modalities as assessed by IFN gamma ELISpot, chromium release and viral challenge assays. Measurement of CTL responses specific for the different epitopes revealed imunodominance patterns, which were largely independent of the vaccine vector or the order of the epitopes in the polytope. ISCOMs thus emerge as a viable human delivery modality for protein-based polytope vaccines. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Single-cell gene-expression profiling reveals qualitatively distinct CD8 T cells elicited by different gene-based vaccines.

CD8 T cells play a key role in mediating protective immunity against selected pathogens after vaccination. Understanding the mechanism of this protection is dependent upon definition of the heterogeneity and complexity of cellular immune responses generated by different vaccines. Here, we identify previously unrecognized subsets of CD8 T cells based upon analysis of gene-expression patterns within single cells and show that they are differentially induced by different vaccines. Three prime-boost vector combinations encoding HIV Env stimulated antigen-specific CD8 T-cell populations of similar magnitude, phenotype, and functionality. Remarkably, however, analysis of single-cell gene-expression profiles enabled discrimination of a majority of central memory (CM) and effector memory (EM) CD8 T cells elicited by the three vaccines. Subsets of T cells could be defined based on their expression of Eomes, Cxcr3, and Ccr7, or Klrk1, Klrg1, and Ccr5 in CM and EM cells, respectively. Of CM cells elicited by DNA prime-recombinant adenoviral (rAd) boost vectors, 67% were Eomes(-) Ccr7(+) Cxcr3(-), in contrast to only 7% and 2% stimulated by rAd5-rAd5 or rAd-LCMV, respectively. Of EM cells elicited by DNA-rAd, 74% were Klrk1(-) Klrg1(-)Ccr5(-) compared with only 26% and 20% for rAd5-rAd5 or rAd5-LCMV. Definition by single-cell gene profiling of specific CM and EM CD8 T-cell subsets that are differentially induced by different gene-based vaccines will facilitate the design and evaluation of vaccines, as well as enable our understanding of mechanisms of protective immunity.