EFFECT OF SOIL TILLAGE AND PLANT RESIDUE ON SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF AN OXISOL UNDER SIMULATED RAIN

Surface roughness of the soil is formed by mechanical tillage and is also influenced by the kind and amount of plant residue, among other factors. Its persistence over time mainly depends on the fundamental characteristics of rain and soil type. However, few studies have been developed to evaluate these factors in Latossolos (Oxisols). In this study, we evaluated the effect of soil tillage and of amounts of plant residue on surface roughness of an Oxisol under simulated rain. Treatments consisted of the combination of the tillage systems of no-tillage (NT), conventional tillage (CT), and minimum tillage (MT) with rates of plant residue of 0, 1, and 2 Mg ha-1 of oats (Avena strigosa Schreb) and 0, 3, and 6 Mg ha-1 of maize (Zea mays L.). Seven simulated rains were applied on each experimental plot, with intensity of 60±2 mm h-1 and duration of 1 h at weekly intervals. The values of the random roughness index ranged from 2.94 to 17.71 mm in oats, and from 5.91 to 20.37 mm in maize, showing that CT and MT are effective in increasing soil surface roughness. It was seen that soil tillage operations carried out with the chisel plow and the leveling disk harrow are more effective in increasing soil roughness than those carried out with the heavy disk harrow and leveling disk harrow. The roughness index of the soil surface decreases exponentially with the increase in the rainfall volume applied under conditions of no tillage without soil cover, conventional tillage, and minimum tillage. The oat and maize crop residue present on the soil surface is effective in maintaining the roughness of the soil surface under no-tillage.

Rainfastness of poly(vinyl alcohol) deposits on Vicia faba leaf surfaces: from laboratory-scale washing to simulated rain

Rainfastness is the ability of agrochemical deposits to resist wash-off by rain and other related environmental phenomena. This work reports laboratory-scale and raintower studies of the rainfastness of fluorescently labeled poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) using fluorescent microscopy combined with image analysis. Samples of hydrolyzed PVA exhibit improved rainfastness over a threshold molecular weight, which correlates with PVA film dissolution, swelling, and crystalline properties. It was also established that the rainfastness of PVA scaled with the molecular weight over this threshold. These PVA samples were further characterized in order to determine the effect of the crystallinity on rainfastness. The quantification of rainfastness is of great interest to the field of agrochemical formulation development in order to improve the efficacy of pesticides and their adjuvants.

Effects of rain shelter or simulated rain during grain filling and maturation on subsequent wheat grain quality in the UK

The effects of simulated additional rain (ear wetting, 25 mm) or of rain shelter imposed at different periods after anthesis on grain quality at maturity and the dynamics of grain filling and desiccation were investigated in UK field-grown crops of wheat (Triticum aestivum L., cvar Tybalt) in 2011 and in 2012 when June–August rainfall was 255.0 and 214.6 mm, respectively, and above the decadal mean (157.4 mm). Grain filling and desiccation were quantified well by broken-stick regressions and Gompertz curves, respectively. Rain shelter for 56 (2011) or 70 d (2012) after anthesis, and to a lesser extent during late maturation only, resulted in more rapid desiccation and hence progress to harvest maturity whereas ear wetting had negligible effects, even when applied four times. Grain-filling duration was also affected as above in 2011, but with no significant effect in 2012. In both years, there were strong positive associations between final grain dry weight and duration of filling. The treatments affected all grain quality traits in 2011: nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) concentrations, N:S ratio, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) sedimentation volume, Hagberg Falling Number (HFN), and the incidence of blackpoint. Only N concentration and blackpoint were affected significantly by treatments in 2012. Rain shelter throughout grain filling reduced N concentration, whereas rain shelter reduced the incidence of blackpoint and ear wetting increased it. In 2011, rain shelter throughout reduced S concentration, increased N:S ratio and reduced SDS. Treatment effects on HFN were not consistent within or between years. Nevertheless, a comparison between the extreme treatment means in 2012 indicated damage from late rain combined with ear wetting resulted in a reduction of c. 0.7 s in HFN/mm August rainfall, whilst that between samples taken immediately after ear wetting at harvest maturity or 7 d later suggested recovery from damage to HFN upon re-drying in planta. Hence, the incidence of blackpoint was the only grain quality trait affected consistently by the diverse treatments. The remaining aspects of grain quality were comparatively resilient to rain incident upon developing and maturing ears of cvar Tybalt. No consistent temporal patterns of sensitivity to shelter or ear wetting were detected for any aspect of grain quality.

Sulfentrazone efficiency on Ipomoea hederifolia and Ipomoea quamoclit as influenced by rain and sugarcane straw

The aim of this study was to assess the capacity of sulfentrazone applied in pre-emergence in controlling Ipomoea hederifolia and Ipomoea quamoclit as a function of the time interval between herbicide application and the occurrence of rain, and the presence of sugarcane straw on the soil surface. Two greenhouse experiments and one field experiment were conducted. For the greenhouse experiments, the study included three doses of sulfentrazone applied by spraying 0, 0.6, and 0.9 kg ha-1, two amounts of straw on the soil (0 and 10 t ha-1), and five time intervals between the application of herbicide and rain simulation (0, 20, 40, 60, and 90 days). In the field experiment, five herbicide treatments (sulfentrazone at 0.6 and 0.9 kg ha-1, sulfentrazone + hexazinone at 0.6 + 0.25 kg ha-1, amicarbazone at 1.4 kg ha-1, and imazapic at 0.147 kg ha-1) and two controls with no herbicide were studied. Management conditions with or without sugarcane straw on the soil were also assessed. From the greenhouse experiments, sulfentrazone application at 0.6 kg ha-1 was found to provide for the efficient control of I. hederifolia and I. quamoclit in a dry environment, with up to 90 days between herbicide application and rain simulation. After herbicide application, 20 mm of simulated rain was enough to leach sulfentrazone from the straw to the soil, as the biological effects observed in I. hederifolia and I. quamoclit remained unaffected. Under field conditions, either with or without sugarcane straw left on the soil, sulfentrazone alone (0.6 or 0.9 kg ha-1) or sulfentrazone combined with hexazinone (0.6 + 0.25 kg ha-1) was effective in the control of I. hederifolia and I. quamoclit, exhibiting similar or better control than amicarbazone (1.4 kg ha-1) and imazapic (0.147 kg ha-1).

Effect of simulated rainfall during wheat seed development and maturation on subsequent seed longevity is reversible

Poor wheat seed quality in temperate regions is often ascribed to wet production environments. We investigated the possible effect of simulated rain during seed development and maturation on seed longevity in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cv. Tybalt grown in the field (2008, 2009) or a polythene tunnel house (2010). To mimic rain, the seed crops were wetted from above with the equivalent of 30mm (2008, 2009) or 25mm rainfall (2010) at different stages of seed development and maturation (17 to 58 DAA, days after 50% anthesis), samples harvested serially, and subsequent air-dry seed longevity estimated. No pre-harvest sprouting occurred. Seed longevity (p50, 50% survival period in experimental hermetic storage at 40°C with c. 15% moisture content) in field-grown controls increased during seed development and maturation attaining maxima at 37 (2008) or 44 DAA (2009); it declined thereafter. Immediate effects of simulated rain at 17-58 DAA in field studies (2008, 2009) on subsequent seed longevity were negative but small, e.g. a 1-4 d delay in seed quality improvement for treatments early in development but with no damage detected at final harvests. In rainfall-protected conditions (2010), simulated rain close to harvest maturity (55-56 DAA) reduced longevity immediately and substantially, with greater damage from two sequential days of wetting than one; again, later harvests provided evidence of recovery in subsequent longevity. In the absence of pre-harvest sprouting, the potentially deleterious effects of rainfall to wheat seed crops on subsequent seed longevity may be reversible in full or in part.

Control of Brachiaria decumbens and Panicum maximum by S-metolachlor as influenced by the occurrence of rain and amount of sugarcane straw on the soil

Com o objetivo de estudar o controle em pré-emergência de Brachiaria decumbens e Panicum maximum pelo herbicida S-metolachlor em função do intervalo de tempo entre a aplicação e a ocorrência de chuva e da quantidade de palha de cana-de-açúcar na superfície do solo, dois experimentos foram desenvolvidos em vasos mantidos em casa de vegetação. No primeiro, foram estudadas cinco quantidades de palha sobre o solo (0, 3, 6, 10 e 15 t ha-1) e cinco dosagens de S-metolachlor (0; 0,96; 1,44; 1,92 e 2,40 kg ha-1). No outro, foram avaliadas duas quantidades de palha sobre o solo (0 e 10 t ha-1) e sete intervalos de tempo entre a aplicação de S-metolachlor e a simulação de chuva (1 dia antes; logo após; 4, 8, 12, 16 e 20 dias após a aplicação). As dosagens de S-metolachlor não foram afetadas pelos níveis de palha na superfície do solo. Além disso, sem a manutenção de palha sobre o solo, o controle das plantas daninhas pelo herbicida S-metolachlor não foi influenciado pelos intervalos de tempo entre a aplicação e a simulação de chuva, até 20 dias. Com 10 t ha-1 de palha, o controle de B. decumbens e P. maximum pelo S-metolachlor não foi prejudicado quando choveu até 12 dias da sua aplicação ou um dia antes, mas, nesse caso apenas para P. maximum.

Sulfentrazone efficiency on Ipomoea hederifolia and Ipomoea quamoclit as influenced by rain and sugarcane straw

Objetivou-se neste trabalho avaliar o controle em pré-emergência de Ipomoea hederifolia e Ipomoea quamoclit pelo herbicida sulfentrazone em função do intervalo de tempo entre a aplicação e a ocorrência de chuva e da manutenção ou não de palha de cana-de-açúcar na superfície do solo. Três experimentos foram desenvolvidos: dois em casa de vegetação e um em campo. Nos experimentos em casa de vegetação, foram estudadas três doses de sulfentrazone (0, 0,6 e 0,9 kg ha-1) pulverizado em duas quantidades de palha na superfície do solo (0 e 10 t ha-1) e cinco intervalos de tempo entre a sua aplicação e a simulação de chuva (0, 20, 40, 60 e 90 dias). No experimento em campo, foram avaliados cinco tratamentos de herbicida (sulfentrazone a 0,6 e 0,9 kg ha-1; sulfentrazone + hexazinone a 0,6 + 0,25 kg ha-1; amicarbazone a 1,4 kg ha-1; e imazapic a 0,147 kg ha-1) e duas testemunhas sem aplicação. A manutenção ou não da palha de cana sobre o solo também foi estudada. em casa de vegetação, a aplicação de 0,6 kg ha-1 de sulfentrazone foi suficiente para o controle adequado de I. hederifolia e I. quamoclit num ambiente seco com até 90 dias sem chuva após a aplicação. Os 20 mm de chuva simulados após a aplicação do herbicida foram suficientes para remover o sulfentrazone da palha para o solo, pois o efeito biológico de controle de I. hederifolia e I. quamoclit não foi alterado. em campo, sem ou com a permanência de palha de cana sobre o solo, o sulfentrazone isolado (0,6 e 0,9 kg ha-1) ou em mistura com hexazinone (0,6 + 0,25 kg ha-1) foi eficaz para I. hederifolia e I. quamoclit, com resposta similar ou melhor que a do amicarbazone (1,4 kg ha-1) e imazapic (0,147 kg ha-1).

Use of bulk density profiles from X-radiography to examine structural crust models

Exponential and sigmoidal functions have been suggested to describe the bulk density profiles of crusts. The present work aims to evaluate these conceptual models using high resolution X-radiography. Repacked seedbeds from two soil materials, air-dried or prewetted by capillary rise, were subjected to simulated rain, which resulted in three types of structural crusts, namely, slaking, infilling, and coalescing. Bulk density distributions with depth were generated using high-resolution (70 mum), calibrated X-ray images of slices from the resin-impregnated crusted seedbeds. The bulk density decreased progressively with depth, which supports the suggestion that a crust should be considered as a nonuniform layer. For the slaking and the coalescing crusts, the exponential function underestimated the strong change in bulk density across the morphologically defined transition between the crust and the underlying material; the sigmoidal function provided a better description. Neither of these crust models effectively described the shape of the bulk density profiles through the whole seedbed. Below the infilling and slaking crusts, bulk density increased linearly with depth as a result of slumping. In the coalescing crusted seedbed, the whole seedbed uniformly collapsed and most of the bulk density change within the crust could be ascribed to slumping (0.33 g cm(-3)) rather than to crusting (0.12 g cm(-3)). Finally, (i) X-radiography appears as a unique tool to generate high resolution bulk density profiles and (ii) in structural crusts, bulk density profiles could be modeled using the existing exponential and sigmoidal crusting models, provided a slumping model would be coupled.

Runoff and sediment transport in a degraded area

Gully erosion occurs by the combined action of splash, sheetwash and rill-wash (interrill and rill erosion). These erosion processes have a great capacity for both sediment production and sediment transport. The objectives of this experiment were to evaluate hydrological and sediment transport in a degraded area, severely dissected by gullies; to assess the hydraulic flow characteristics and their aggregate transport capacity; and to measure the initial splash erosion rate. In the study area in Guarapuava, State of Paraná, Brazil (lat 25º 24' S; long 51º24' W; 1034 m asl), the soil was classified as Cambissolo Húmico alumínico, with the following particle-size composition: sand 0.116 kg kg-1; silt 0.180 kg kg-1; and clay 0.704 kg kg-1. The approach of this research was based on microcatchments formed in the ground, to study the hydrological response and sediment transport. A total of eight rill systems were simulated with dry and wet soil. An average rainfall of 33.7 ± 4.0 mm was produced for 35 to 54 min by a rainfall simulator. The equipment was installed, and a trough was placed at the end of the rill to collect sediments and water. During the simulation, the following variables were measured: time to runoff, time to ponding, time of recession, flow velocity, depth, ratio of the initial splash and grain size. The rainsplash of dry topsoil was more than twice as high as under moist conditions (5 g m-2 min-1 and 2 g m-2 min-1, respectively). The characteristics of the flow hydraulics indicate transition from laminar to turbulent flow [Re (Reynolds number) 1000-2000]. In addition, it was observed that a flow velocity of 0.12 m s-1 was the threshold for turbulent flow (Re > 2000), especially at the end of the rainfall simulation. The rill flow tended to be subcritical [Fr (Froude Number) < 1.0]. The variation in hydrological attributes (infiltration and runoff) was lower, while the sediment yield was variable. The erosion in the rill systems was characterized as limited transport, although the degraded area generated an average of 394 g m-2 of sediment in each simulation.

Relations between soil surface roughness, tortuosity, tillage treatments, rainfall intensity and soil and water losses from a red yellow latosol

The soil surface roughness increases water retention and infiltration, reduces the runoff volume and speed and influences soil losses by water erosion. Similarly to other parameters, soil roughness is affected by the tillage system and rainfall volume. Based on these assumptions, the main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of tillage treatments on soil surface roughness (RR) and tortuosity (T) and to investigate the relationship with soil and water losses in a series of simulated rainfall events. The field study was carried out at the experimental station of EMBRAPA Southeastern Cattle Research Center in São Carlos (Fazenda Canchim), in São Paulo State, Brazil. Experimental plots of 33 m² were treated with two tillage practices in three replications, consisting of: untilled (no-tillage) soil (NTS) and conventionally tilled (plowing plus double disking) soil (CTS). Three successive simulated rain tests were applied in 24 h intervals. The three tests consisted of a first rain of 30 mm/h, a second of 30 mm/h and a third rain of 70 mm/h. Immediately after tilling and each rain simulation test, the surface roughness was measured, using a laser profile meter. The tillage treatments induced significant changes in soil surface roughness and tortuosity, demonstrating the importance of the tillage system for the physical surface conditions, favoring water retention and infiltration in the soil. The increase in surface roughness by the tillage treatments was considerably greater than its reduction by rain action. The surface roughness and tortuosity had more influence on the soil volume lost by surface runoff than in the conventional treatment. Possibly, other variables influenced soil and water losses from the no-tillage treatments, e.g., soil type, declivity, slope length, among others not analyzed in this study.

Numerical simulations of intense tropical storms

A high resolution general circulation model has been used to study intense tropical storms. A five-year-long global integration with a spatial resolution of 125 km has been analysed. The geographical and seasonal distribution of tropical storms agrees remarkably well with observations. The structure of individual storms also agrees with observations, but the storms are generally more extensive in coverage and less extreme than the observed ones. A few additional calculations have also been done by a very high resolution limited-area version of the same model, where the boundary conditions successively have been interpolated from the global model. These results are very realistic in many details of the structure of the storms including simulated rain-bands and an eye structure. The global model has also been used in another five-year integration to study the influence of greenhouse warming. The sea surface temperatures have been taken from a transient climate change experiment carried out with a low resolution coupled ocean-atmosphere model. The result is a significant reduction in the number of hurricanes, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. Main reasons for this can be found in changes in the largescale circulation, i.e. a weakening of the Hadley circulation, and a more intense warming of the upper tropical troposphere. A similar effect can be seen during warm ENSO events, where fewer North Atlantic hurricanes have been reported.

Perdas de solo, matéria orgânica e nutrientes por erosão hídrica em uma vertente coberta com diferentes quantidades de palha de cana-de-açúcar em Guariba - SP

A erosão em entressulcos resulta da desagregação causada pelo impacto das gotas de chuva na superfície do solo e pelo transporte superficial das partículas do solo desagregadas, onde se encontram a matéria orgânica e os nutrientes fundamentais para a produção agrícola. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar as perdas de solo, matéria orgânica e nutrientes em uma vertente localizada em uma área de Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo distrófico, cultivada com cana-de-açúcar, que é colhida mecanicamente. As parcelas experimentais foram submetidas à ação de uma chuva simulada com intensidade de 60 mm h-1, durante 65 minutos. Foram feitas análises do sedimento erodido para a determinação do volume de solução, das perdas de solo, matéria orgânica e nutrientes. Houve maiores perdas de solo, matéria orgânica e nutrientes nos sedimentos oriundos das parcelas com 0% e 25% de cobertura por palha de cana-de-açúcar. em média, essas perdas foram reduzidas nas parcelas com 75% e 100% de cobertura com palha de cana-de-açúcar. Os resultados permitiram concluir que uma cobertura com palha de cana-de-açúcar acima de 50%, da área colhida, reduz a perda de solo e de matéria orgânica, bem como diminui a concentração de nutrientes no sedimento erodido.

Influência da chuva após aplicação de imazamox sobre o controle de plantas daninhas aquáticas

This study aimed to evaluate the imazamox control efficiency on aquatic plants under different intervals of simulated rain after its spraying. The experiment was carried out in completely random design with four replications. The imazamox at 290.4 g ha(-1) was tested on three aquatic weed species, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Pistia stratiotes L. and Salvinia adnata Desv and, under eight different rain-free periods (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24 hours). Rainfall was simulated using a sprinkler irrigation system (20mm). There was a good control of Eichhornia crassipes, regardless of periods without rain after herbicide spraying. However, Pistia stratiotes took a rain-free period of at least eight hours to obtain an effective control. In Salvinia adnata, whole rain-free periods affected the control provided by the herbicide.

Eficácia do glyphosate e 2,4-d no controle de espécies de trapoerabas (commelina spp.)

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of glyphosate and 2,4-D for the Commelina benghalensis, Commelina diffusa and Commelina erecta. Three experiments were conducted in a greenhouse in a completely randomized in factorial scheme 3x7+1 (three herbicides x seven periods - hour after application) for two methods for measuring absorption of herbicides (simulated rain and cut the leaves applied), and a control without application, with four replications. The herbicides used were: glyphosate (1,080 g ha(-1)), 2,4-D amine (720 g ha(-1)) and, mixture glyphosate + 2,4-D (720 + 720 g ha(-1)). It was evaluated seven time intervals for washing (simulating rainfall after application) and cut (simulation abortion as a strategy of defense) the leaves applied: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 hours after herbicide application (HHA). The minimum period for absorption of glyphosate alone and in mixture with 2,4 -D presented a satisfactory control (> 90.0%) was around 12 HHA to C. benghalensis, C. diffusa and C. erecta, independently of washing or cut the leaves applied. This observed behavior can influence the time required without rain after herbicide application, besides that, the plants aborted part of the stem with injuries to avoid the herbicide translocation, especially when was used the 2,4-D alone. Concluded that glyphosate alone and in mixture with 2,4-D were efficient and that the differences in the control of species may be due to variation of time to absorb the herbicide.

Lixiviação de potássio no solo de acordo com suas doses aplicadas sobre palha de milheto

A presença de palha na superfície do solo influi na ciclagem do K do sistema de produção e pode alterar as propriedades químicas do solo, com possíveis reflexos na lixiviação do nutriente. No presente trabalho, foi avaliada a lixiviação de K no perfil de um solo submetido a 30 mm de chuva simulada, de acordo com doses de K aplicadas a lanço, na presença e ausência de palha de milheto na superfície do solo. O milheto foi cultivado por 55 dias em condições controladas. A seguir, foi cortado à altura do colo, em pedaços de 3 a 5 cm e colocado sobre o solo, em vasos de PVC com 20 cm de diâmetro, em quantidade equivalente a 8 t ha-1 do material seco. Sobre a palha foi aplicado cloreto de K, correspondente às doses de 0, 40, 80, 120 e 160 kg ha-1. A seguir, os vasos foram submetidos à chuva simulada equivalente a 30 mm. A palha foi coletada e analisada quanto aos teores de K, assim como o solo foi amostrado nas profundidades de 0-2, 2-4, 4-8, 8-12 e 12-20 cm de profundidade para análise de K trocável. A chuva de 30 mm foi necessária e suficiente para carrear para o solo o fertilizante potássico aplicado sobre a palha. A intensidade de lixiviação do K no perfil do solo foi proporcional à dose aplicada, de modo que uma chuva de 30 mm lixiviou o nutriente até a camada de 8-12 cm de profundidade, quando o solo estava descoberto. A presença de palha de milheto na superfície do solo aumentou a quantidade de K levada até à superfície do solo pela chuva, mas diminuiu a intensidade de lixiviação do nutriente.