Phthalate mediated hydrogelation of a pyrene based system: a novel scaffold for shape-persistent, self-healing luminescent soft material

Two-component super-hydrogelation triggered by the acid-base interaction of a L-histidine appended pyrenyl derivative (PyHis) and phthalic acid (PA) was reported. The use of isomeric isophthalic or terephthalic acid or other comparable acids in place of PA does not lead to salt formation and therefore hydrogelation is not observed. Excimer formation of the pyrenyl unit has not been detected although the PyHis : PA = 1: 1 system undergoes extensive self-assembly in aqueous solution. The synergistic effect of intermolecular H-bonding forces, pi-pi stacking, electrostatic interactions, etc. is found to be responsible for robust hydrogel formation. Development of chiral supramotecular assemblies has been verified through circular dichroism spectroscopy. Morphological investigations involving the PyHis : PA = 1: 1 system show vesicular nano-structures with a definite bilayer width at relatively low concentrations. The latter fuses to construct coiled-coil left-handed helical fibers upon increase in the concentrations of the gelators. The intertwining of the resultant helical fibers eventually results in hydrogel formation. The probable bilayer packing in the self-assembled structures has been probed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies and lanthanide sensitization, which suggests that the polar imidazolium hydrogen phthalate unit of the gelator forms the head group and faces the hydrophilic water environment while the hydrophobic pyrenyl units sit inside the hydrophobic core of the bilayer. The hydrogel exhibits multi-stimuli responsiveness including thixotropic behavior. In addition, shape-persistent as well as rapid self-healing behaviour of the hydrogel was established. Furthermore load-bearing characteristics of the hydrogel have also been demonstrated.

Carbon-carbon bond formation methods for the preparation of shape-persistent architectures

Carbon-rich, conjugated organic scaffolding is a popular basis for functional materials, especially for electronic and photonic applications. However, synthetic methods for generating these types of materials lack diversity and, in many cases, efficiency; the insistence of investigators focusing on the properties of the end product, rather than the process in which it was created, has led to the current state of the relatively homogeneous synthetic chemistry of functional organic materials. Because of this, there is plenty of room for improvement at the most basic level. Problems endemic to the preparation of carbon-rich scaffolding can, in many cases, be solved with modern advances in synthetic methodology. We seek to apply this synthesis-focused paradigm to solve problems in the preparation of carbon-rich scaffolds. Herein, the development and utilization of three methodologies: iridium-catalyzed arene C-H borylation; zinc- mediated alkynylations; and Lewis acid promoted Mo nitride-alkyne metathesis, are presented as improvements for the preparation of carbon-rich architectures. In addition, X-ray crystallographic analysis of two classes of compounds are presented. First, an analysis of carbazole-containing arylene ethynylene macrocycles showcases the significance of alkyl chain identity on solid-state morphology. Second, a class of rigid zwitterionic metal-organic compounds display an unusual propensity to crystallize in the absence of inversion symmetry. Hirshfeld surface analysis of these crystalline materials demonstrates that subtle intermolecular interactions are responsible for the overall packing motifs in this class of compounds.

Molecular Cage Impregnated Palladium Nanoparticles: Efficient, Additive-Free Heterogeneous Catalysts for Cyanation of Aryl Halides

Two shape-persistent covalent cages (CC1(r) and CC2(r)) have been devised from triphenyl amine-based trialdehydes and cyclohexane diamine building blocks utilizing the dynamic imine chemistry followed by imine bond reduction. The cage compounds have been characterized by several spectroscopic techniques which suggest that CC1(r) and CC2(r) are 2+3] and 8+12] self-assembled architectures, respectively. These state-of-the-art molecules have a porous interior and stable aromatic backbone with multiple palladium binding sites to engineer the controlled synthesis and stabilization of ultrafine palladium nanoparticles (PdNPs). As-synthesized cage-embedded PdNPs have been characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry reveals that Pd@CC1(r) and Pd@CC2(r) have 40 and 25 wt% palladium loading, respectively. On the basis of TEM analysis, it has been estimated that as small as similar to 1.8 nm PdNPs could be stabilized inside the CC1(r), while larger CC2(r) could stabilize similar to 3.7 nm NPs. In contrast, reduction of palladium salts in the absence of the cages form structure less agglomerates. The well-dispersed cage-embedded NPs exhibit efficient catalytic performance in the cyanation of aryl halides under heterogeneous, additive-free condition. Moreover, these materials have excellent stability and recyclability without any agglomeration of PdNPs after several cycles.

Nanopartikel durch Strukturfixierung mizellarer Assoziate aus amphiphilen, endgruppenfunktionalisierten Diblockcopolymeren

Nanopartikel durch Strukturfixierung mizellarer Assoziate aus amphiphilen, endgruppenfunktionalisierten Diblockcopolymeren Zwei unterschiedliche Diblockcopolymersysteme mit Molmassen unterhalb von Mw = 10 000 g/mol wurden über anionische Polymerisation synthetisiert. Ein hetero-telecheles a,w-Poly(dimethylsiloxan)-b-Poly(ethylenoxid) (PDMS-PEO) Diblockcopolymer wurde mit einer Methacrylatendgruppe am PDMS und entweder einer Benzyl-, Hydroxy- oder Carboxylatendgruppe am PEO funktionalisiert. Ein Poly(butadien)-b-Poly(ethylenoxid) (PB-PEO) Diblockcopolymer wurde am PEO ebenfalls entweder mit einer Benzyl-, Hydroxy- oder Carboxylatendgruppe funktionalisiert. In selektiven Lösungsmitteln wie Wasser oder Methanol bilden beide Diblockcopolymersysteme supramolekulare Strukturen mit sphärischer, zylindrischer oder toroider Geometrie aus, die mit statischer und dynamischer Lichtstreuung in Lösung und mit Rasterkraftmikroskopie (AFM) und Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie (TEM) auf der Oberfläche untersucht wurden. Durch Zusatz eines Vernetzers und Initiators wurden die selbstassoziierenden Mizellen des PDMS-PEO Diblockcopolymers permanent durch radikalische Polymerisation mit UV-Licht fixiert. Mizellen des PB-PEO Diblockcopolymers wurden über Bestrahlung mit gamma-Strahlen permanent fixiert. Die Untersuchung der resultierenden Nanopartikel beider Diblockcopolymersysteme mit AFM und TEM zeigte, daß diese sogar in nicht selektiven Lösungsmitteln wie Tetrahydrofuran formstabil bleiben.

Charakterisierung und Funktionalisierung von Polyphenylen-Dendrimeren

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese, Funktionalisierung und Charakterisierung hochverzweigter Polyphenylen-Dendrimere. Dendrimere sind sternförmig aufgebaute Makromoleküle mit regelmäßig verzweigten Armen. Trotz der Herstellung einer Vielfalt von unterschiedlichen Dendrimertypen bleibt die Herstellung steifer formpersistenter nanometergroßer Dendrimere eine Herausforderung. Ein Ansatz zur Herstellung von form- und größenstabilen 'Nanoobjekten' wird in dieser Arbeit vorgestellt. Grundlage der Synthese der in dieser Arbeit hergestellten Polyphenylen-Dendrimere ist die Diels-Alder-Cycloaddition zwischen Tetraphenylcyclopentadienonen und Ethinylderivaten. Auf diese Weise können monodisperse Makromoleküle mit Molekularmassen größer 20 kDa und Durchmessern von 6 nm erhalten werden. Funktionalisiert werden die Dendrimere mit Funktionen wie z. B. Alkyl, Hydroxy oder Carboxy. Die Charakterisierung erfolgt u. a. mit Hilfe der NMR, GPC, Lichtstreuung oder MALDI-TOF Massenspektrometrie, aber auch mit abbildenden Methoden, wie z. B. der AFM und TEM und der Kristallstrukturanalyse. Die Dynamik der vorgestellten Dendrimere wird zum einen mit molekulardynamischen Berechnungen, zum anderen mit der Festkörper-NMR untersucht.Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen beweisen, dass Polyphenylen-Dendrimere nanometergroße steife formstabile Moleküle sind. Sie besitzen in erster Näherung eine globuläre Form, die große Hohlräume enthalten, in die Gastmoleküle eindringen können. Weiterhin erlauben sie eine bezüglich der Anzahl und Position definierte Funktionalisierung.

Coil-ring-coil block copolymers as building blocks of supramolecular hollow cylindrical brushes

This work describes the synthesis of a new class of rod-coil block copolymers, oligosubstituted shape persistent macrocycles, (coil-ring-coil block copolymers), and their behavior in solution and in the solid state.The coil-ring-coil block copolymers are formed by nanometer sized shape persistent macrocycles based on the phenyl-ethynyl backbone as rigid block and oligomers of polystyrene or polydimethylsiloxane as flexible blocks. The strategy that has been followed is to synthesize the macrocycles with an alcoholic functionality and the polymer carboxylic acids independently, and then bind them together by esterification. The ester bond is stable and relatively easy to form.The synthesis of the shape persistent macrocycles is based on two separate steps. In the first step the building blocks of the macrocycles are connected by Hagiara-Sogonaschira coupling to form an 'half-ring' as precursor, that contains two free acetylenes. In the second step the half-ring is cyclized by forming two sp-sp bonds via a copper-catalyzed Glaser coupling under pseudo-high-dilution conditions. The polystyrene carboxylic acid was prepared directly by siphoning the living anionic polymer chain into a THF solution, saturated with CO2, while the polydimethylsiloxane carboxylic acid was obtained by hydrosilylating an unsaturated benzylester with an Si-H terminated polydimethylsiloxane, and cleavage of the ester. The carbodiimide coupling was found to be the best way to connect macrocycles and polymers in high yield and high purity.The polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers are, depending on the molecular weight of the polystyrene, lyotropic liquid crystals in cyclohexane. The aggregation behavior of the copolymers in solution was investigated in more detail using several technique. As a result it can be concluded that the polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers can aggregate into hollow cylinder-like objects with an average length of 700 nm by a combination of shape complementary and demixing of rigid and flexible polymer parts. The resulting structure can be described as supramolecular hollow cylindrical brush.If the lyotropic solution of the polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers are dried, they remain birefringent indicating that the solid state has an ordered structure. The polydimethylsiloxane-ring-polydimethylsiloxane block copolymers are more or less fluid at room temperature, and are all birefringent (termotropic liquid crystals) as well. This is a prove that the copolymers are ordered in the fluid state. By a careful investigation using electron diffraction and wide-angle X-ray scattering, it has been possible to derive a model for the 3D-order of the copolymers. The data indicate a lamella structure for both type of copolymers. The macrocycles are arranged in a layer of columns. These crystalline layers are separated by amorphous layers which contain the polymers substituents.

Formtreue organische Makrocyclen mit polarem Innenraum

Zusammenfassung Die Arbeit beschreibt die Synthese und Eigenschaften von formtreuen organischen Makrocyclen mit intraannularen polaren Gruppen. Dabei wurden zunächst entsprechende bifunktionalisierte Acetylenbausteine (Halbringe) hergestellt, welche anschließend in einer oxidativen Glaser-Eglington Kupplung zu den Makrocyclen umgesetzt wurden.Am Anfang wurden Sulfonat-funktionalisierte Makrocyclen untersucht. Diese ließen sich mittels der Templatmethode in hohen Ausbeuten synthetisieren. Nach der Abspaltung des Templatbausteins, der gleichzeitig als Schutzgruppe für die Sulfonsäure diente, erhielt man den entsprechenden Makrocyclus als Tetra-n-butylammonium-Salz. Vor dem Hintergrund ionenleitfähige Materialien zu erhalten, wurde anschließend das organische Kation durch anorganische Kationen (z.B. Li+, Na+) ausgetauscht. Dies führte jedoch zur Bildung unlöslicher Produkte, die sich nicht eindeutig charakterisierten ließen.Ein anderer Ansatz zu löslichen Makrocyclen mit polarem Innenraum zu gelangen war die Synthese eines Dipeptid-funktionalisierten Makrocyclus. Dies geschah im Hinblick auf die eventuelle Eignung der Makrocyclen als Rezeptormoleküle für Gäste biologischen Ursprungs. Dabei ließen sich die entsprechenden Dipeptid-funktionalisierten Halbringe auf einfache Weise darstellen, jedoch trat bei der anschließenden Glaser-Kupplung, wahrscheinlich bedingt durch den hohen molaren Überschuß an Kupfersalzen, als Hauptreaktion die Abspaltung des Peptidrests auf. Daher wurde sich nun der Carbonsäuregruppe als polaren Baustein im Inneren der Ringe zugewandt. Diese sollten eine anschließende Peptidankupplung zulassen.Es wurden vier verschiedene Makrocyclen mit intraannularen Carboxylatgruppen synthetisiert. Auch hier waren die Makrocyclen in Form ihrer Methylester noch gut, in Form der Säuren oder deren Salze oftmals nur noch sehr gering löslich. Um die Löslichkeit zu verbessern, wurde dabei die Polaritätsverteilung am Ring (polarer Innenraum, unpolarer Außenraum) durch das Anbringen von löslichkeits-vermittelnden Gruppen zum Teil aufgegeben. Dabei hat sich gezeigt, daß es erst durch die Verwendung von verzweigten (S)-Methylbutoxy-Gruppen innerhalb des Rings oder langen Alkoxyketten außerhalb des Rings möglich war, zu löslichen Systemen zu gelangen. Im ersten Fall ist es zum ersten Mal gelungen, einen löslichen Makrocyclus mit zwei freien intra-annnularen Carbonsäuregruppen zu erhalten. Durch die Optimierung der Syntheseroute ist es nunmehr möglich, den Ring im Grammmaßstab herzustellen. Außerdem wurden als Testreaktion beide Säuregruppen mit Methylamin zum Säureamid vollständig umgesetzt. Somit wurde ein System entwickelt, an das sich in Zukunft beliebige Aminosäuren an den Ring anbinden lassen sollten. Zusätzlich sollte sich die Chiralität der (S)-Methylbutoxygruppen auf das Erkennen von chiralen Gästen auswirken.Im zweiten Fall wurden durch das Anbringen von vier Tris(hexadecyloxy)-benzol- oder Tris(dodecyloxy)-benzol- Gruppen an der Peripherie der Ringe nach Hydrolyse der Methylestergruppen ebenfalls lösliche, Carboxylat-funktionalisierte Makrocyclen erhalten. Eine eingehende Untersuchung der Methylester-geschützten Ringe ergab, daß diese beim Schmelzen das Auftreten einer thermotropen flüssigkristallinen Phase zeigen. Die Natur der Mesophase konnte mittels Polarisations-Lichtmikroskopie sowie Röntgenbeugungsmethoden eindeutig als kolumnar-schiefwinklig (colob) charakterisiert werden. Hierbei ist zu bemerken, daß bei ähnlichen Makrocyclen, die über keinen polar gefüllten Innenraum verfügen, keine Mesophase auftritt. Das bedeutet, daß die Raumerfüllung im Inneren der Makrocyclen, bedingt durch die polaren Gruppen, zur Ausbildung einer flüssigkristallinen Phase unbedingt notwendig ist.

Festkörper-NMR-Spektroskopie

Die innerhalb dieser Arbeit mittels moderner Festkörper-NMR-Methoden untersuchte molekulare Dynamik in Poly(methacrylat)-Schmelzen und Polyphenylen-Dendrimeren ist durch eine bemerkenswerte Anisotropie gekennzeichnet.Die Anisotropie der molekularen Dynamik zeigt sich in geschmolzenen, ataktischen und isotaktischen Poly(ethylmethacrylaten) (PEMA) durch die Zeitskalenseparation der segmentellen alpha-Relaxation von einem etwa zwei Größenordnungen langsameren Relaxationsprozeß, welcher die Isotropisierung der Polymerhauptkette wiedergibt. Die Isotropisierungsdynamik der Polymerhauptkette wird - mit Ausnahme von PMMA - durch eine universelle, nicht-korrelationszeitenverteilte Relaxationsmode der Poly(methacrylate) quantifiziert, deren Temperaturabhängigkeit durch einen einheitlichen WLF-Parametersatz beschrieben werden kann. Geometrisch läßt sich die Isotropisierung der Hauptkette durch Sprungprozesse beliebiger Amplitude von Kettenstücken mit gestreckter all-trans-Konformation interpretieren. Die Kette zeigt eine außergewöhnliche konformative Stabilität. WAXS-Messungen deuten für PEMA und seine höheren Homologen die Existenz einer Schichtstruktur an, in der sich die steifen, polaren Hauptketten lokal in Monolagen anordnen, welche durch Bereiche zusammengelagerter Seitengruppen getrennt sind. Die Festkörper-NMR-Untersuchungen an Polyphenylen-Dendrimeren bringen zwei zentrale Aspekte in der wechselseitigen Beziehung von Struktur und Dynamik hervor. Zum einen ist die beobachtete molekulare Dynamik auf lokale Reorientierungen einzelner, terminaler Phenylringe um definierte Achsen beschränkt. Polyphenylen-Dendrimermoleküle sind unter diesen Bewegungen formstabil. Zum anderen können sowohl schnelle, als auch langsame Phenylreorientierungen nachgewiesen werden, wobei jeweils die intramolekulare Packungsdichte der Phenylringe das dynamische Verhalten der Polyphenylen-Dendrimere kontrolliert.

Complexes of polyelectrolytes with defined charge distance and different dendrimer counterions

Complexes of polyelectrolytes with defined charge distance and different dendrimer counterions Magdalena Chelmecka Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research; Ackermannweg 10; D-55128 Mainz ; Tel.: (+49) 06131- 379 – 226 A study of complexes in solution is of interest to investigate whether the formation of well-defined assemblies like in classical surfactant systems is possible. Aim of this thesis is to investigate the electrostatic self-assembly of linear polycations of varying charge distance with “large” counterions of varying architecture. We especially investigate the morphology of objects formed, but also their stability under salt free condition and after low molecular mass salt addition. As polycations, Poly(dialkylimino)-alkylene salts (Ionenes) I65MeBr and I25MeBr were chosen. Ionenes are synthesized via Menschutkin reaction and characterized by standard methods. Counterions are Polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers of generations G2.5, G5.5, G7.5 with -COONa surface groups and shape-persistent, Polyphenylene dendrimers of generation G1 with surface -COOH groups. A complex interplay of interactions is expected to direct the self assembly via electrostatic interaction, geometric factors, hydrophobic interaction or hydrogen bonds. Methods used for the investigation of complexes are: UV-spectroscopy, pH-metric techniques, dynamic and static light scattering, small angle neutron scattering,  potential measurements and potentiometric titration. Under certain conditions, (i.e. charge ratio of compounds, charge density of ionene and dendrimer also concentration of sample) polyelectrolyte systems composed of ionenes and dendrimers build complexes in solution. System compounds are typical polyelectrolytes, but structures which they build behave not usual for typical polyelectrolytes. In a one diffusion mode regime aggregates of about 100 nm hydrodynamic radius have been found. Such aggregates are core-shell or anisotropic core shell structures in the case of ionenes/PAMAM dendrimers complexes. These complexes are stable even at high ionic strength. In case of ionenes with poly(phenylene) dendrimers, hard sphere-like objects or spherical objects with hairy-like surface have been found in a one diffusion mode regime. Their stability at high ionic strength is lower. For the ionenes/poly(phenylene) dendrimers systems one transition point has been found from one to two diffusion processes, towards increasing ionene concentration, i.e. for the samples with fixed dendrimer concentration towards increasing ionic strength. For the diffusion profile of ionene/PAMAM dendrimers in most cases two transition regimes are observed. One at very low ionene concentration, the second one at high ionene concentrations, which again means for the samples with fixed dendrimer concentration, also at higher ionic strength. Both two mode regimes are separated by the one mode regime. As was confirmed experimentally, the one diffusion mode regime is caused by the motion of well defined assemblies. The two diffusion mode regimes are caused by the movement of different sized species in solution, large aggregates and middle-size aggregates (oligoaggregates). The location and also the number of transition points in the diffusion profiles is dependent on the ionene to dendrimer charge ratio, charge density of the compounds and concentration. No influence of the molecular mass of the ionene has been found. The aggregates are found to be charged on the surface, however this surface charge does not significantly influence the diffusion properties of the system.

Polyphenylene dendrimers

The main goals of this work were the design, synthesis, and characterization of new functional polyphenylene dendrimers. Polyphenylene dendrimers are highly branched, monodisperse macromolecules consisting exclusively of benzene rings. They can be obtained in high yield by a repetitive Diels-Alder cycloaddition - deprotection protocol. Their shape-persistent dendritic scaffold allows to obtain nanoparticles with functional groups in defined relative orientation. In the first chapter polyphenylene dendrimers with a pyrene core are presented. The focus of the investigations was upon the shielding efficiency of dendritic shells of different generations upon the pyrene-functionality in the core. The herein presented materials combine high quantum efficiency, good solubility and improved film forming properties making them possible candidates for several applications in electronic devices. The defined functionalization of polyphenylene dendrimers often requires a great synthetic effort, since for every desired function the appropriate building block has to be synthesized. To overcome these disadvantages, a new functionalization concept based upon benzophenone precursors has been developed. This new concept has successfully been applied for the functionalization of the dendritic core, the dendrimer shell, and the dendrimer surface. To investigate the accessibility and reactivity of the embedded groups, many functions of different size and nature were introduced. Moreover, suitable precursors for the synthesis of dendrimer entrapped species, trityl cations, trityl radicals, and ketyl radical anions, were obtained. The combination of the synthetic protocols of core- and surface-functionalization resulted in a new type of functional molecules, highly interesting from the point of electron transfer processes. A polyphenylene dendron was used to arrange a triphenylamine donor and a perylene acceptor moiety in a defined spatial distance and orientation. The in-depth photophysical investigation of a first model compound is reported. The herein presented functionalized dendrimers are highly interesting as well from the point of view of fundamental research (looking into the optic and electronic properties of such unique shape persistent structures) as from the point of view of their potential application as tailor-made nanomaterials in the field of optoelectronics.

Multichromophore Systeme auf Basis von Rylencarbonsäureimiden

Die Leistung multichromophorer Systeme geht oftmals über die der einzelnen Chromophor-Einheiten hinaus. Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation mit dem Titel „Multichromophore Systeme auf Basis von Rylencarbonsäureimiden“ war daher die Synthese und Charakterisierung multichromophorer Molekülarchitekturen. Die verwendeten Rylenfarbstoffe zeichnen sich durch hohe photochemische Stabilitäten sowie nahezu quantitative Fluoreszenzquantenausbeuten aus. Die optischen und elektronischen Eigenschaften multichromophorer Systeme hängen stark von der geometrischen Ordnung ab, in der die Farbstoffe zueinander stehen. Daher wurden für den Einbau formpersistente Gerüststrukturen gewählt. Der erste Teil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem Einbau ein und desselben Chromophortyps und hat neben dem Verständnis von Chromophor-Wechselwirkungen vor allem die Erhöhung des Absorptionsquerschnitts und der Fluoreszenzintensität zum Ziel. Als Gerüststruktur dienen dabei Polyphenylen-Dendrimere, Ethinyl-verbrückte Dendrimere sowie Übergangsmetall-vermittelte supramolekulare Strukturen. Aufgrund der hohen Farbstoffanzahl, des ortsdefinierten Einbaus und den hohen Fluoreszenzquantenausbeuten eignen sich diese multichromophoren Systeme als Fluoreszenzsonden und als Einzelphotonenemitter. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit werden verschiedene Chromophortypen zu multichromophoren Systemen verknüpft, mit deren Hilfe ein vektorieller Energietransfer möglich ist. Mit Hinsicht auf die Verwendung in photovoltaischen Zellen wurde eine dendritische Triade dargestellt. Eine lineare Variante einer Rylen-Triade stellt einen molekularen Draht dar, deren Brückenelement durch eine geeignete Syntheseführung verlängert und der Energietransport daher abstandsabhängig untersucht werden kann.

Polymer properties measured by micromechanical cantilever technique

Surface stress changes induced by specific adsorption of molecules were investigated using a micromechanical cantilever sensor (MCS) device. 16 MCS are grouped within four separate wells. Each well can be addressed independently by different liquid enabling functionalization of MCS separately by flowing different solutions through each well and performing sensing and reference experiments simultaneously. In addition, each well contains a fixed reference mirror, which allows measuring the absolute bending of MCS. The effect of the flow rate on the MCS bending change was found to be dependent on the absolute bending value of MCS. In addition, the signal from the reference mirror can be used to follow refractive index changes upon mixing different solutions. Finite element simulation of solution exchange in wells was compared with experiment results. Both revealed that one solution can be exchanged by another one after a total volume of 200 µl has flown through. Using MCS, the adsorption of thiolated deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules and 6-mercapto-1-hexanol (MCH) on gold surfaces, and the DNA hybridization were performed. The nanomechanical response is in agreement with data reported by Fritz et al.1 Thus, the multiwell device is readily applicable for sensing of multiple chemical and biological recognition events in a single step. In this context controlled release and uptake of drugs are currently widely discussed. As a model system, we have used polystyrene (PS) spheres with diameters in the order of µm. The swelling behavior of individual PS spheres in toluene vapor was studied via mass loading by means of micromechanical cantilever sensors. For 4–8% cross-linked PS a mass increase of 180% in saturated toluene vapor was measured. In addition, the diameter change in saturated toluene vapor was measured and the corresponding volume increase of 200% was calculated. The mass of the swollen PS sphere decreases with increasing exposure time to ultraviolet (UV) light. The swelling response is significantly different between the first and the second exposure to toluene vapor. This is attributed to the formation of a cross-linked shell at the surface of the PS spheres. Shape persistent parts were observed for locally UV irradiated PS spheres. These PS spheres were found to be fluorescent and cracks occur after exposure in toluene liquid. The diffusion time of dye molecules in PS spheres increases with increasing chemical cross-linking density. This concept of locally dissolving non cross-linked PS from the sphere was applied to fabricate donut structures on surfaces. Arrays of PS spheres were fabricated using spin coating. The donut structure was produced simply after liquid solvent rinsing. The complete cross-linking of PS spheres was found after long exposure time to UV. We found that stabilizers play a major role in the formation of the donut nanostructures.

Systematic functionalization of molecules for molecular self-assembly

This thesis describes the investigation of systematically varied organic molecules for use in molecular self-assembly processes. All experiments were performed using high-resolution non-contact atomic force microscopy under UHV conditions and at room temperature. Using this technique, three different approaches for influencing intermolecular and molecule-surface interaction on the insulating calcite(10.4) surface were investigated by imaging the structure formation at the molecular scale. I first demonstrated the functionalization of shape-persistent oligo(p-benzamide)s that was engineered by introducing different functional groups and investigating their effect on the structural formation on the sample surface. The molecular core was designed to provide significant electrostatic anchoring towards the surface, while at the same time maintaining the flexibility to fine-tune the resulting structure by adjusting the intermolecular cohesion energy. The success of this strategy is based on a clear separation of the molecule-substrate interaction from the molecule-molecule interaction. My results show that sufficient molecule-surface anchoring can be achieved without restricting the structural flexibility that is needed for the design of complex molecular systems. Three derivatives of terephthalic acid (TPA) were investigated in chapter 7. Here, the focus was on changing the adhesion to the calcite surface by introducing different anchor functionalities to the TPA backbone. For all observed molecules, the strong substrate templating effect results in molecular structures that are strictly oriented along the calcite main crystal directions. This templating is especially pronounced in the case of 2-ATPA where chain formation on the calcite surface is observed in contrast to the formation of molecular layers in the bulk. At the same time, the amino group of 2-ATPA proved an efficient anchor functionality, successfully stabilizing the molecular chains on the sample surface. These findings emphasizes, once again, the importance of balancing and fine-tuning molecule-molecule and molecule-surface interactions in order to achieve stable, yet structurally flexible molecular arrangements on the sample surface. In the last chapter, I showed how the intrinsic property of molecular chirality decisively influences the structure formation in molecular self-assembly. This effect is especially pronounced in the case of the chiral heptahelicene-2-carboxylic acid. Deposition of the enantiopure molecules results in the formation of homochiral islands on the sample surface which is in sharp contrast to the formation of uni-directional double rows upon deposition of the racemate onto the same surface. While it remained uncertain from these previous experiments whether the double rows are composed of hetero- or homochiral molecules, I could clearly answer that question here and demonstrate that the rows are of heterochiral origin. Chirality, thus, proves to be another important parameter to steer the intermolecular interaction on surfaces. Altogether, the results of this thesis demonstrate that, in order to successfully control the structure formation in molecular self-assembly, the correct combination of molecule and surface properties is crucial. This is of special importance when working on substrates that exhibit a strong influence on the structure formation, such as the calcite(10.4) surface. Through the systematic variation of functional groups several important parameters that influence the balance between molecule-surface and molecule-molecule interaction were identified here, and the results of this thesis can, thus, act as a guideline for the rational design of molecules for use in molecular self-assembly.

Oberflächenstrukturierte amphiphile Polyphenylendendrimere zur Imitation natürlicher Transportproteine

In dieser Arbeit werden formstabile, amphiphile, oberflächenstrukturierte Polyphenylendendrimere (PPDs) mit verschiedenen Oberflächenpolaritäten beschrieben. Die physikalisch-chemischen Eigenschaften dieser Makromoleküle wurden studiert, welche ein gutes Verständnis der Nanoumgebung amphiphiler PPDs lieferten. Auch lichtinduzierte Polaritätsänderung wurde untersucht. Mit dem Konzept einer gleichmäßigen Verteilung polarer Bereiche auf der Peripherie hydrophober PPPs gelang es, Transportsysteme für Fettsäuren und Zytostatika zu erzeugen, welche charakteristische Merkmale natürlicher Transportproteine wie Albumin in sich vereinen. Hierzu zählen eine stabile dreidimensionale Form, die Ausbildung von Bindungstaschen sowie eine definierte strukturierte Oberfläche aus hydrophilen und hydrophoben Bereichen. Die Verfügbarkeit von lipophilen Bindungstaschen übertrifft sogar die des Albumins. Im Gegensatz zu Polymeren kann die Wirkstoffaufnahme bei PPDs exakt bestimmt werden. Die Anpassung der peripheren Gruppen beeinflusst den zellulären Aufnahmemechanismus. Es konnten effiziente Zellaufnahmen in A549-Zellen sowie der Transport und die intrazelluläre Freisetzung von Doxorubicin erreicht werden. Manche PPDs bieten eine Größe und Architektur, die es ermöglicht, Endothelzellen des Gehirns zu durchdringen. Es wurde auch der andere Extremfall untersucht, indem alle polaren Gruppen auf einer Hemisphäre akkumuliert wurden. Zur Darstellung solcher Janus-Dendrimere wurde ein neues Synthesekonzept herausgearbeitet und die erhaltenen Janus-Dendrimere mittels Lichtstreuung untersucht, wobei definierte perlenschnurartige Aggregate gefunden wurden. Weiterhin wurden semifluorierte Amphiphile vorgestellt, welche die Möglichkeit zur Selbstorganisation durch Nanophasenseparation bieten.

Synthesis, properties and application of polyphenylene phosphonium salts

The central objective of this work was to generate weakly coordinating cations of unprecedented molecular size providing an inherently stable hydrophobic shell around a central charge. It was hypothesized that divergent dendritic growth by means of thermal [4+2] Diels-Alder cycloaddition might represent a feasible synthetic method to circumvent steric constraints and enable a drastic increase in cation size.rnThis initial proposition could be verified: applying the divergent dendrimer synthesis to an ethynyl-functionalized tetraphenylphosphonium derivative afforded monodisperse cations with precisely nanoscopic dimensions for the first time. Furthermore, the versatile nature of the applied cascade reactions enabled a throughout flexible design and structural tuning of the desired target cations. The specific surface functionalization as well as the implementation of triazolyl-moieties within the dendrimer scaffold could be addressed by sophisticated variation of the employed building block units (see chapter 3). rnDue to the steric screening provided by their large, hydrophobic and shape-persistent polyphenylene shells, rigidly dendronized cations proved more weakly coordinating compared to their non-dendronized analogues. This hypothesis has been experimentally confirmed by means of dielectric spectroscopy (see chapter 4). It was demonstrated for a series of dendronized borate salts that the degree of ion dissociation increased with the size of the cations. The utilization of the very large phosphonium cations developed within this work almost achieved to separate the charge carriers about the Bjerrum length in solvents of low polarity, which was reflected by approaching near quantitative ion dissociation even at room temperature. In addition to effect the electrolyte behavior in solution, the steric enlargement of ions could be visualized by means of several crystal structure analyses. Thus an insight into lattice packing under the effect of extraordinary large cations could be gathered. rnAn essential theme of this work focused on the application of benzylphosphonium salts in the classical Wittig reaction, where the concept of dendronization served as synthetic means to introduce an exceptionally large polyphenylene substituent at the -position. The straightforward influence of this unprecedented bulky group on the Wittig stereochemistry was investigated by NMR-analysis of the resulting alkenes. Based on the obtained data a valuable explanation for the origin of the observed selectivity was brought in line with the up-to-date operating [2+2] cycloaddition mechanism. Furthermore, a reliable synthesis protocol for unsymmetrically substituted polyphenylene alkenes and stilbenes was established by the design of custom-built polyphenylene precursors (see chapter 5).rnFinally, fundamental experiments to functionalize a polymer chain with sterically shielded ionic groups either in the pending or internal position were outlined within this work. Thus, inherently hydrophobic polysalts shall be formed so that future research can invesigate their physical properties with regard to counter ion condensation and charge carrier mobility.rnIn summary, this work demonstrates how the principles of dendrimer chemistry can be applied to modify and specifically tailor the properties of salts. The numerously synthesized dendrimer-ions shown herein represent a versatile interface between classic organic and inorganic electrolytes, and defined macromolecular structures in the nanometer-scale. Furthermore the particular value of polyphenylene dendrimers in terms of a broad applicability was illustrated. This work accomplished in an interdisciplinary manner to give answer to various questions such as structural modification of ions, the resulting influence on the electrolyte behavior, as well as the stereochemical control of organic syntheses via polyphenylene phosphonium salts. rn