Short- and long-term changes in joint co-contraction associated with motor learning as revealed from surface EMG.

In the field of motor control, two hypotheses have been controversial: whether the brain acquires internal models that generate accurate motor commands, or whether the brain avoids this by using the viscoelasticity of musculoskeletal system. Recent observations on relatively low stiffness during trained movements support the existence of internal models. However, no study has revealed the decrease in viscoelasticity associated with learning that would imply improvement of internal models as well as synergy between the two hypothetical mechanisms. Previously observed decreases in electromyogram (EMG) might have other explanations, such as trajectory modifications that reduce joint torques. To circumvent such complications, we required strict trajectory control and examined only successful trials having identical trajectory and torque profiles. Subjects were asked to perform a hand movement in unison with a target moving along a specified and unusual trajectory, with shoulder and elbow in the horizontal plane at the shoulder level. To evaluate joint viscoelasticity during the learning of this movement, we proposed an index of muscle co-contraction around the joint (IMCJ). The IMCJ was defined as the summation of the absolute values of antagonistic muscle torques around the joint and computed from the linear relation between surface EMG and joint torque. The IMCJ during isometric contraction, as well as during movements, was confirmed to correlate well with joint stiffness estimated using the conventional method, i.e., applying mechanical perturbations. Accordingly, the IMCJ during the learning of the movement was computed for each joint of each trial using estimated EMG-torque relationship. At the same time, the performance error for each trial was specified as the root mean square of the distance between the target and hand at each time step over the entire trajectory. The time-series data of IMCJ and performance error were decomposed into long-term components that showed decreases in IMCJ in accordance with learning with little change in the trajectory and short-term interactions between the IMCJ and performance error. A cross-correlation analysis and impulse responses both suggested that higher IMCJs follow poor performances, and lower IMCJs follow good performances within a few successive trials. Our results support the hypothesis that viscoelasticity contributes more when internal models are inaccurate, while internal models contribute more after the completion of learning. It is demonstrated that the CNS regulates viscoelasticity on a short- and long-term basis depending on performance error and finally acquires smooth and accurate movements while maintaining stability during the entire learning process.

Accurate real-time feedback of surface EMG during fMRI.

Real-time acquisition of EMG during functional MRI (fMRI) provides a novel method of controlling motor experiments in the scanner using feedback of EMG. Because of the redundancy in the human muscle system, this is not possible from recordings of joint torque and kinematics alone, because these provide no information about individual muscle activation. This is particularly critical during brain imaging because brain activations are not only related to joint torques and kinematics but are also related to individual muscle activation. However, EMG collected during imaging is corrupted by large artifacts induced by the varying magnetic fields and radio frequency (RF) pulses in the scanner. Methods proposed in literature for artifact removal are complex, computationally expensive, and difficult to implement for real-time noise removal. We describe an acquisition system and algorithm that enables real-time acquisition for the first time. The algorithm removes particular frequencies from the EMG spectrum in which the noise is concentrated. Although this decreases the power content of the EMG, this method provides excellent estimates of EMG with good resolution. Comparisons show that the cleaned EMG obtained with the algorithm is, like actual EMG, very well correlated with joint torque and can thus be used for real-time visual feedback during functional studies.

Reliability of surface EMG measurements of the quadriceps during maximal isometric contractions following water immersion

Background: The influence of water immersion on neuromuscular function is of importance to a number of disciplines; however, the reliability of surface electromyography (SEMG) following water immersion is not known. This study examined the reliability of SEMG amplitude during maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVICs) of the vastus lateralis following water immersion.

Methods: Using a Biodex isokinetic dynamometer and in a randomized order, 12 healthy male subjects performed four MVICs at 60° knee flexion on both the dominant and nondominant kicking legs, and the SEMG was recorded. Each subject's dominant and nondominant kicking leg was then randomly assigned to have SEMG electrodes removed or covered during 15 min of water immersion (20°C–25°C). Following water immersion, subjects performed a further four MVICs.

Results: Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and the relative standard error of measurement (%SEM) of SEMG amplitude showed moderate to high trial-to-trial reliability when electrodes were covered (0.93% and 2.79%) and removed (0.95% and 2.10%, respectively).

Conclusions: The results of the this study indicate that SEMG amplitude of the vastus lateralis may be accurately determined during maximal voluntary contractions following water immersion if electrodes are either removed or covered with water-resistive tape during the immersion.

A simulation of the surface EMG for analysis of muscle activity during whole body vibratory stimulation

Many studies have accounted for whole body vibration effects in the fields of exercise physiology, sport and rehabilitation medicine. Generally, surface EMG is utilized to assess muscular activity during the treatment; however, large motion artifacts appear superimposed to the raw signal, making sEMG recording not suitable before any artifact filtering. Sharp notch filters, centered at vibration frequency and at its superior harmonics, have been used in previous studies, to remove the artifacts. [6, 10] However, to get rid of those artifacts some true EMG signal is lost. The purpose of this study was to reproduce the effect of motor-unit synchronization on a simulated surface EMG during vibratory stimulation. In addition, authors mean to evaluate the EMG power percentage in those bands in which are also typically located motion artifact components. Model characteristics were defined to take into account two main aspect: the muscle MUs discharge behavior and the triggering effects that appear during local vibratory stimulation. [7] Inter-pulse-interval, was characterized by a polimodal distribution related to the MU discharge frequency (IPI 55-80ms, σ=12ms) and to the correlation with the vibration period within the range of ±2 ms due to vibration stimulus. [1, 7] The signals were simulated using different stimulation frequencies from 30 to 70 Hz. The percentage of the total simulated EMG power within narrow bands centered at the stimulation frequency and its superior harmonics (± 1 Hz) resulted on average about 8% (± 2.85) of the total EMG power. However, the artifact in those bands may contain more than 40% of the total power of the total signal. [6] Our preliminary results suggest that the analysis of the muscular activity of muscle based on raw sEMG recordings and RMS evaluation, if not processed during vibratory stimulation may lead to a serious overestimation of muscular response.

Simulation of surface EMG for the analysis of muscle activity during whole body vibratory stimulation

This study aims to reproduce the effect of motor-unit synchronization on surface EMG recordings during vibratory stimulation to highlight vibration evoked muscle activity. The authors intended to evaluate, through numerical simulations, the changes in surface EMG spectrum in muscles undergoing whole body vibration stimulation. In some specific bands, in fact, vibration induced motion artifacts are also typically present. In addition, authors meant to compare the simulated EMGs with respect to real recordings in order to discriminate the effect of synchronization of motor units discharges with vibration frequencies from motion artifacts. Computations were performed using a model derived from previous studies and modified to consider the effect of vibratory stimulus, the motor unit synchronization and the endplates-electrodes relative position on the EMG signal. Results revealed that, in particular conditions, synchronization of MUs' discharge generates visible peaks at stimulation frequency and its harmonics. However, only a part of the total power of surface EMGs might be enclosed within artifacts related bands (±1. Hz centered at the stimulation frequency and its superior harmonics) even in case of strong synchronization of motor units discharges with the vibratory stimulus. © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

Prediction of maximal surface electromyographically based voluntary contractions of erector spinae muscles from sonographic measurements during isometric contractions

Objectives Currently, there are no studies combining electromyography (EMG) and sonography to estimate the absolute and relative strength values of erector spinae (ES) muscles in healthy individuals. The purpose of this study was to establish whether the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) of the ES during isometric contractions could be predicted from the changes in surface EMG as well as in fiber pennation and thickness as measured by sonography. Methods Thirty healthy adults performed 3 isometric extensions at 45° from the vertical to calculate the MVC force. Contractions at 33% and 100% of the MVC force were then used during sonographic and EMG recordings. These measurements were used to observe the architecture and function of the muscles during contraction. Statistical analysis was performed using bivariate regression and regression equations. Results The slope for each regression equation was statistically significant (P < .001) with R2 values of 0.837 and 0.986 for the right and left ES, respectively. The standard error estimate between the sonographic measurements and the regression-estimated pennation angles for the right and left ES were 0.10 and 0.02, respectively. Conclusions Erector spinae muscle activation can be predicted from the changes in fiber pennation during isometric contractions at 33% and 100% of the MVC force. These findings could be essential for developing a regression equation that could estimate the level of muscle activation from changes in the muscle architecture.

EMG Biofeedback Videogame System for the Gait Rehabilitation of Hemiparetic Individuals

Gemstone Team CHIP

The surface electromyography-force relationship during isometric dorsiflexion in males and females

This study evaluated sex-related differences in the tibialis anterior (TA) surface electromyography (EMG) to force relationship. One-hundred participants (50 males and 50 females) performed three isometric contractions at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) in an apparatus designed to isolate the action of the dorsiflexors. The surface EMG signal was amplified (lOOOx), band-pass filtered (10-500Hz), and sampled at 2048 Hz. The load cell signal was low-passed filtered at 100 Hz and sampled at the same rate. Males were stronger than females {P <0.05). However, there was no significant difference in root-mean-square (RMS) values between sexes {P <0.05). Both sexes exhibited a quadratic increase in RMS across force levels (P <0.05). The mean power frequency (MNF) for males was greater than for females {P <0.05). Males and females exhibited a linear increase in both frequency measures up to 80% of MVC (P <0.05). Between 80 and 100% MVC, the frequency values for the females plateaued while males showed a decrease {P <0.05). The magnitude of the difference in MNF between males and females was consistent with sex-specific TA physiology. In general, the pattern of means for RMS and MNF between males and females revealed no sex-related differences in the surface EMG/force relationship. We therefore conclude that there are no sex-related differences in the gradation of muscle force.

Decomposition of surface electromyographic signal using Hidden Markov Model

The detection of physiological signals from the motor system (electromyographic signals) is being utilized in the practice clinic to guide the therapist in a more precise and accurate diagnosis of motor disorders. In this context, the process of decomposition of EMG (electromyographic) signals that includes the identification and classification of MUAP (Motor Unit Action Potential) of a EMG signal, is very important to help the therapist in the evaluation of motor disorders. The EMG decomposition is a complex task due to EMG features depend on the electrode type (needle or surface), its placement related to the muscle, the contraction level and the health of the Neuromuscular System. To date, the majority of researches on EMG decomposition utilize EMG signals acquired by needle electrodes, due to their advantages in processing this type of signal. However, relatively few researches have been conducted using surface EMG signals. Thus, this article aims to contribute to the clinical practice by presenting a technique that permit the decomposition of surface EMG signal via the use of Hidden Markov Models. This process is supported by the use of differential evolution and spectral clustering techniques. The developed system presented coherent results in: (1) identification of the number of Motor Units actives in the EMG signal; (2) presentation of the morphological patterns of MUAPs in the EMG signal; (3) identification of the firing sequence of the Motor Units. The model proposed in this work is an advance in the research area of decomposition of surface EMG signals.

Reliability of normalisation methods for EMG analysis of neck muscles

Acceptable reliability of normalisation contractions in electromyography (EMG) is paramount for testing conducted over a number of days or if normal laboratory strength testing equipment is unavailable. This study examined the reliability of maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVIC) and sub-maximal (60%) isometric contractions for use in neck muscle EMG studies. Surface EMG was recorded bilaterally from eight sites around the neck at C4/5 level from five healthy male subjects. Subjects performed MVIC and sub-maximal normalisation contractions using an isokinetic dynamometer (ID) and a portable cable dynamometer with attached strain gauge (PCD) in addition to a MVIC against a manual resistance (MR). Subjects were tested in flexion, extension, left and right lateral bending and were retested by the same tester within a two-week period. Intra class correlation co-efficients (ICC) were calculated for each testing method and contraction direction and a mean ICC was calculated across all contraction directions. All normalisation methods produced excellent within-day reliability (mean ICC >0.80) but only the MVICs using the ID and PCD had acceptable reliability when assessed between-days. This study confirmed the validity of using MVICs elicited using the ID and PCD as reliable reference contractions for the normalisation of neck EMG.

No difference in 1RM strength and muscle activation during the barbell chest press on a stable and unstable surface

Exercise or Swiss balls are increasingly being used with conventional resistance exercises. There is little evidence supporting the efficacy of this approach compared to traditional resistance training on a stable surface. Previous studies have shown that force output may be reduced with no change in muscle electromyography (EMG) activity while others have shown increased muscle EMG activity when performing resistance exercises on an unstable surface. This study compared 1RM strength, and upper body and trunk muscle EMG activity during the barbell chest press exercise on a stable (flat bench) and unstable surface (exercise ball). After familiarization, 13 subjects underwent testing for 1RM strength for the barbell chest press on both a stable bench and an exercise ball, each separated by at least 7 days. Surface EMG was recorded for 5 upper body muscles and one trunk muscle from which average root mean square of the muscle activity was calculated for the whole 1RM lift and the concentric and eccentric phases. Elbow angle during each lift was recorded to examine any range-of-motion differences between the two surfaces. The results show that there was no difference in 1RM strength or muscle EMG activity for the stable and unstable surfaces. In addition, there was no difference in elbow range-of-motion between the two surfaces. Taken together, these results indicate that there is no reduction in 1RM strength or any differences in muscle EMG activity for the barbell chest press exercise on an unstable exercise ball when compared to a stable flat surface. Moreover, these results do not support the notion that resistance exercises performed on an exercise ball are more efficacious than traditional stable exercises.

Electromyographic muscle EMG activity in mouth and nasal breathing children

Mouth breathing may cause changes in muscle activity, because an upper airway obstruction leads may cause a person to extend his/her head forward, demanding a higher inspiratory effort on the accessory muscles (sternocleidomastoids). This purpose of this study is to compare, using electromyography (EMG), the activity pattern the sternocleidomastoid and upper trapezius muscles in mouth breathing children and nasal breathing children. Forty-six children, ages 8-12 years, 33 male and 13 female were included. The selected children were divided into two groups: Group I consisted of 26 mouth breathing children, and Group II, 20 nasal breathing children. EMG recordings were made using surface electrodes bilaterally in the areas of the sternocleidomastoideus and upper trapezius muscles, while relaxed and during maximal voluntary contraction. The data were analyzed using the Kruskall-Wallis statistical test. The results indicated higher activity during relaxation and lower activity during maximal voluntary contraction in mouth breathers when compared to the nasal breathers. It is suggested that the activity pattern of the sternocleidomastoid and upper trapezius muscles differs between mouth breathing children and nasal breathing children. This may be attributed to changes in body posture which causes muscular imbalance. Because of the limitations of surface EMG, the results need to be confirmed by adding force measurements and repeating the experiments with matched subjects. Copyright © 2004 by CHROMA, Inc.

Further evaluation of an EMG technique for assessment of the deep cervical flexor muscles

A novel surface electromyographic (EMG) technique was recently described for the detection of deep cervical flexor muscle activity. Further investigation of this technique is warranted to ensure EMG activity from neighbouring muscles is not markedly influencing the signals recorded. This study compared deep cervical flexor (DCF) muscle activity with the activity of surrounding neck and jaw muscles during various anatomical movements of the neck and jaw in 10 volunteer subjects. DCF EMG activity was recorded with custom electrodes inserted via the nose and fixed by suction to the posterior mucosa of the oropharynx. Surface electrodes were placed over the sternocleidomastoid, anterior scalene, masseter and suprahyoid muscles. Positioned in supine, subjects performed isometric cranio-cervical flexion, cervical flexion, right and left cervical rotation,jaw clench and resisted jaw opening. Across all movements examined, EMG amplitude of the DCF muscles was greatest during neck movements that would require activity of the DCF muscles, particularly during cranio-cervical flexion, their primary anatomical action. The actions of jaw clench and resisted jaw opening demonstrated significantly less DCF EMG activity than the cranio-cervical flexion action (p < 0.05). Across all other movements, the neighbouring neck and jaw muscles demonstrated greatest EMG amplitude during their respective primary anatomical actions, which occurred in the absence of increased EMG amplitude recorded from the DCF muscles. The finding of substantial EMG activity of the DCF muscles only during neck actions that would require their activity, particularly cranio-cervical flexion, and not during actions involving the jaw, provide further assurance that the majority of myoelectric signals detected from the nasopharyngeal electrode are from the DCF muscles. (C) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Quadriceps activity and movement reactions in response to unpredictable sagittal support-surface translations in women with patellofemoral pain

Patellofemoral pain (PFP) may be related to unfavorable knee joint loading. Delayed and/or reduced activity of vastus medialis obliquus (VMO) and different movement patterns have been identified in individuals with PFP in some studies, whereas other studies have failed to show a difference compared to non-affected controls. The discrepancy between study results may depend on the different tasks that have been investigated. No previous study has investigated these variables in postural responses to unpredictable perturbations in PFP. Whole body three dimensional kinematics and surface EMG of quadriceps muscles activation was studied in postural responses to unpredictable support surface translations in 17 women with PFP who were pain free at the time of testing, and 17 matched healthy controls. The results of the present study showed earlier onset of VMO activity and associated changes in kinematics to anterior platform translation in the PFP subjects. We suggest that the relative timing between the portions quadriceps muscles may be task specific and part of an adapted response in attempt to reduce knee joint loading. This learned response appears to remain even when the pain is no longer present.