Arythmies foetales : extrasystoles et tachycardies supraventriculaires [Fetal arrhythmias: premature atrial contractions and supraventricular tachycardia]

Une arythmie foetale complique 1 à 2% des grossesses et présente dans 10% des cas un risque majeur de morbidité et de mortalité pour le foetus. Les arythmies les plus fréquentes sont les extrasystoles supraventriculaires (ESSV). Elles sont bénignes et se résolvent spontanément mais nécessitent un suivi visant à exclure un passage en tachycardie supraventriculaire (TSV). Les TSV sont plus rares mais sont fréquemment compliquées de décompensation cardiaque et d'anasarque. Heureusement, elles sont traitables in utero par pharmacothérapie. Nous rapportons ici notre expérience entre 2003 et 2005 avec de telles pathologies : parmi les 26 foetus adressés au Centre de cardiologie du CHUV, à Lausanne, et présentant des ESSV et/ou une TSV, aucun n'a souffert de complication sérieuse. Six ont bénéficié d'un traitement par sotalol en raison de TSV. Fetal arrhythmias form a complicating factor in 1-2% of all pregnancies and in 10% of those cases morbidity or even mortality is encountered. The most frequent occurring arrhythmias are premature atrial contractions (PAC). These are usually benign phenomena which resolve spontaneously, but require some follow-up to exclude the development of supraventricular tachycardias (SVT). SVTs are rare but are frequently complicated by fetal congestive heart failure or even fetal death. Timely prenatal pharmacotherapeutic intervention is generally advised to return to an adequate heart rate, preferably sinus rhythm. This study reports on the local experience with these forms of pathologies: of the 26 fetuses encountered with PAC or/and SVT between 2003 and 2005, none experienced serious complications, while 6 required pharmacotherapeutic intervention with sotalol.

Prevention of electrocardiographic and histopathologic alterations in the murine model of Chagas' disease by preinoculation of an attenuated Trypanosoma cruzi strain

The effects of infection with Trypanosoma cruzi on the electrocardiographic tracings of mice were studied in 4.groups of animals: (1) normal; (2) infected with a pathogenic T. cruzi strain (TS COB); (3) immunized with 3 intraperitoneal inocula of 10(6) attenuated T. cruzi epimastigotes (TCC) and (4) immunized-infected, which sequentially received the treatments of groups 3 and 2. Infection and protection were confirmed by xenodiagnosis and histopathology. Isolated alterations such as extrasystolia, 1st degree atrioventricular block, arrhythmia and ST elevation were observed in normal as well as infected mice. However, tracings taken repeatedly on each mouse over a 293 day period revealed a set of alterations which were more frequently seen in infected (14/22) than in normal (4/27) animals (p = 0.00048). These alterations consisted of supraventricular tachycardia, sinus bradycardia and persisting, first degree AV blocks, often associated to pacemaker changes. Inoculation of attenuated T. cruzi (group 3) did not increase these alterations (2/27 mice) but significantly prevented their development after challenge with the pathogenic strain (1/19 versus 14/22 mice, p = 0.000095). Thus, preimmunization reduced not only parasitemia but also a pathogenic consequence of T. cruzi infection. This evidence is relevant for immunoprevention studies against Chagas' disease.

Encerramento Percutâneo de Shunts Interauriculares: Experiência de uma Década de um Centro Terciário

INTRODUCTION: Atrial septal defects (ASD) are among the most common congenital anomalies and account for 10% of congenital heart disease in the pediatric age-group and 30% in adults. Closure is indicated when there is evidence of hemodynamic significance or after a paradoxical embolic event. Ten years ago, percutaneous closure became the treatment of choice in our center for all patients with a clear indication and favorable anatomy. In this paper we report the experience of this first decade. OBJECTIVE: To assess the short- and long-term results of our ten-year experience with percutaneous closure of atrial septal defects. METHODS: We studied retrospectively all patients with ASD treated with a percutaneous approach between November 1998 and December 2008. The pediatric age-group consisted of patients younger than 19 years old. Demographic data, clinical indications, minor and major complication rates, success rate and long-term outcome were assessed. RESULTS: In the first ten years of experience 510 patients, of whom 166 were in the pediatric group, were treated in our center by a team of adult and pediatric cardiologists. The overall success rate of the procedure was 98% (97.5% in ASD and 99.5% in patent foramen ovale (PFO). The minor complication rate was 3% (3.4% in ASD and 2% in PFO). The most frequent complication was supraventricular tachycardia. The major complication rate was 1.2% (0.6% in ASD and 2% in PFO). Two patients developed cardiac tamponade due to hemopericardium that was resolved by pericardiocentesis, without need for surgery. One patient had an arterial pseudoaneurysm corrected by vascular surgery. There was no device embolization and no need for urgent surgery in this population. During follow-up two patients had recurrence of ischemic stroke, one had a transient ischemic attack and another had a hemorrhagic stroke. Mortality was 0.6% (0.6% in ASD and 0.5% in PFO). There were no in-hospital deaths. During follow-up there were two deaths, both in the adult group. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: In this population the success rate was high and most of the complications were minor. The results of this collaboration between adult and pediatric cardiologists in the first ten years of activity confirm the safety and efficacy of percutaneous closure of septal defects, when there is careful patient selection and a standardized technique.

Cardiac and neurologic outcome of cardiac rhabdomyoma considerations for prenatal counseling

Abstract : Cardíac rhabdomyomas are benign cardiac tumors with few cardiac complications but with a known association to tuberous sclerosis that affects the neurologic outcome of the patients. Thís study analyses the long-term cardiac and neurological outcome of patients with cardiac rhabdomyomas in order to allow comprehensive prenatal counseling. qll prenatal and postnatal cases with echocardiographic diagnosis of cardiac rhabdomyomas encountered from August 1982 -September 2007 have been recorded. Independent factors, such às the number and the location of the tumors, have been analyzed for association with a diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis, in order to predict the cardiac and neurologic outcome of the patients. Cardiac complications include arrhythmias, outflow tract obstruction, secondary cardiogenic shock. Arrhythmias are the most often encountered problems during the neonatal period. Supraventricular tachycardia is the commonest rhythm disturbance identified. However, no specific dimension or location of the cardiac rhabdomyomas may predict the rhythm disturbances. The importance of the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis in patients presenting with cardiac rhabdomyomas is exemplified by the neurodevelopmental complications showing 80% of cases with epilepsy and 63% of cases with a delayed development. The presence of multiple cardiac tumors in patients suggests a higher risk to be affected by tuberous sclerosis, compared to patients with a single tumor. Cardiac rhabdomyomas generally regress aftér birth and after the perinatal period cardiac-related problems are rare, but tuberous sclerosis and the associated neurodevelopmental complications dominate the clinical picture and should form an important aspect of the prenatal counseling of parents. Résumé : Les rhabdomyomes cardiaques sont des tumeurs cardiaques bénignes avec toutefois des complications. cardiaques possibles et surtout avec une association pour la sclérose tubéreuse de Bourneville qui détermine le pronostic neurologique. Cette étude présente une analyse du suivi cardiologique. et neurologique à long terme d'enfants avec un diagnostic de rhabdomyomes cardiaques dans le but de mieux informer les parents lors de la consultation anténatale. L'ensemble des cas de rhabdomyomes cardiaques diagnostiqués au moyen de l'échocardiographie pendant la période anténatale ainsi que postnatale a été répertorié d'août 1982 à septembre 2007. Des facteurs indépendants, tels que le nombre et la localisation des tumeurs, ont été analysés pour leur association avec le diagnostic de la sclérose tubéreuse de Bourneville, afin de prédire le pronostic cardiaque et neurologique de ces patients. Les complications cardiaques retrouvées sont les arythmies, les obstructions des voies d'éjection ventriculaire et le choc cardiogène secondaire. Les arythmies sont les problèmes les plus fréquemment rencontrés pendant la période néonatale.. La tachycardie supraventriculaire est le trouble de rythme le plus souvent identifié. Néanmoins, il n'y a pas de dimension ou de localisation.- spécifique d'un rhabdomyome cardiaque qui pourrait prédire ces troubles du rythme. L'importance de l'association au diagnostic de la sclérose tubéreuse de Bourneville chez les patients atteints de rhabdomyomes est démontrée à travers les complications du développement neurologique avec une attéinte épileptique dans 80% des cas ainsi qu'un retard de développement dans 63% des cas. La présence de multiples tumeurs cardiaques chez un patient suggère un risque accru d'être atteint de la sclérose tubéreuse de Bourneville comparé à un patient atteint d'une tumeur unique. Les rhabdomyomes cardiaques régressent après la naissance et après la période périnatale les complications cardiaques deviennent rares. Toutefois, l'association à la sclérose tubéreuse de Bourneville domine le tableau clinique avec des complications au niveau du développement neurologique et formé donc un aspect important lors de la consultation anténatale.

Considerations for prenatal counselling of patients with cardiac rhabdomyomas based on their cardiac and neurologic outcomes.

Cardiac rhabdomyomas are benign cardiac tumours with few cardiac complications, but with a known association to tuberous sclerosis that affects the neurologic outcome of the patients. We have analysed the long-term cardiac and neurological outcomes of patients with cardiac rhabdomyomas in order to allow comprehensive prenatal counselling, basing our findings on the records of all patients seen prenatally and postnatally with an echocardiographic diagnosis of cardiac rhabdomyoma encountered from August, 1982, to September, 2007. We analysed factors such as the number and the location of the tumours to establish their association with a diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis, predicting the cardiac and neurologic outcomes for the patients.Cardiac complications include arrhythmias, obstruction of the ventricular outflow tracts, and secondary cardiogenic shock. Arrhythmias were encountered most often during the neonatal period, with supraventricular tachycardia being the commonest rhythm disturbance identified. No specific dimension or location of the cardiac rhabdomyomas predicted the disturbances of rhythm.The importance of the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis is exemplified by the neurodevelopmental complications, with four-fifths of the patients showing epilepsy, and two-thirds having delayed development. The presence of multiple cardiac tumours suggested a higher risk of being affected by tuberous sclerosis. The tumours generally regress after birth, and cardiac-related problems are rare after the perinatal period. Tuberous sclerosis and the associated neurodevelopmental complications dominate the clinical picture, and should form an important aspect of the prenatal counselling of parents.

Considerations for prenatal counselling of patients with cardiac rhabdomyomas based on their cardiac and neurologic outcomes.

Cardiac rhabdomyomas are benign cardiac tumours with few cardiac complications, but with a known association to tuberous sclerosis that affects the neurologic outcome of the patients. We have analysed the long-term cardiac and neurological outcomes of patients with cardiac rhabdomyomas in order to allow comprehensive prenatal counselling, basing our findings on the records of all patients seen prenatally and postnatally with an echocardiographic diagnosis of cardiac rhabdomyoma encountered from August, 1982, to September, 2007. We analysed factors such as the number and the location of the tumours to establish their association with a diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis, predicting the cardiac and neurologic outcomes for the patients.Cardiac complications include arrhythmias, obstruction of the ventricular outflow tracts, and secondary cardiogenic shock. Arrhythmias were encountered most often during the neonatal period, with supraventricular tachycardia being the commonest rhythm disturbance identified. No specific dimension or location of the cardiac rhabdomyomas predicted the disturbances of rhythm.The importance of the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis is exemplified by the neurodevelopmental complications, with four-fifths of the patients showing epilepsy, and two-thirds having delayed development. The presence of multiple cardiac tumours suggested a higher risk of being affected by tuberous sclerosis. The tumours generally regress after birth, and cardiac-related problems are rare after the perinatal period. Tuberous sclerosis and the associated neurodevelopmental complications dominate the clinical picture, and should form an important aspect of the prenatal counselling of parents.

Activation of electrical triggers of atrial fibrillation in hyperthyroidism.

CONTEXT: A shortening of the atrial refractory period has been considered as the main mechanism for the increased risk of atrial fibrillation in hyperthyroidism. However, other important factors may be involved. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to determine the activity of abnormal supraventricular electrical depolarizations in response to elevated thyroid hormones in patients without structural heart disease. PATIENTS AND DESIGN: Twenty-eight patients (25 females, three males, mean age 43+/-11 yr) with newly diagnosed and untreated hyperthyroidism were enrolled in a prospective trial after exclusion of heart disease. Patients were followed up for 16 +/- 6 months and studied at baseline and 6 months after normalization of serum TSH levels. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The incidence of abnormal premature supraventricular depolarizations (SVPD) and the number of episodes of supraventricular tachycardia was defined as primary outcome measurements before the start of the study. In addition, heart rate oscillations (turbulence) after premature depolarizations and heart rate variability were compared at baseline and follow-up. RESULTS: SVPDs decreased from 59 +/- 29 to 21 +/- 8 per 24 h (P = 0.003), very early SVPDs (so called P on T) decreased from 36 +/- 24 to 3 +/- 1 per 24 h (P < 0.0001), respectively, and nonsustained supraventricular tachycardias decreased from 22 +/- 11 to 0.5 +/- 0.2 per 24 h (P = 0.01) after normalization of serum thyrotropin levels. The hyperthyroid phase was characterized by an increased heart rate (93 +/- 14 vs. 79 +/- 8 beats/min, P < 0.0001) and a decreased turbulence slope (3.6 vs. 9.2, P = 0.003), consistent with decreased vagal tone. This was confirmed by a significant decrease of heart rate variability. CONCLUSION: Hyperthyroidism is associated with an increased supraventricular ectopic activity in patients with normal hearts. The activation of these arrhythmogenic foci by elevated thyroid hormones may be an important causal link between hyperthyroidism and atrial fibrillation.

A case of suicide by self-injection of adrenaline.

Adrenaline (epinephrine) auto-injectors provide life-saving pre-hospital treatment for individuals experiencing anaphylaxis in a community setting. Errors in handling adrenaline auto-injectors, particularly by children and healthcare professionals, have been reported. Reports of adrenaline overdoses are limited in the medical literature. In most of these cases, accidental adrenaline administration results from medical error. Exogenous administration of catecholamine is responsible for cardiovascular and metabolic responses, which may cause supraventricular tachycardia, ventricular dysrhythmias and myocardial ischemia. The authors present a unique autopsy case involving a 34 year-old woman who intentionally self-injected adrenaline using an adrenaline auto-injector as part of a suicide plan. Catecholamines and metanephrines were measured in peripheral and cardiac blood as well as urine and vitreous humor. Based on the results of all postmortem investigations, the cause of death was determined to be cardiac dysrhythmia and cardiac arrest following adrenaline self-injection.

Caractéristiques et origine fonctionnelle des propriétés fréquentielles du noeud auriculoventriculaire

Le nœud auriculoventriculaire (AV) joue un rôle vital dans le cœur normal et pathologique. Il connecte les oreillettes aux ventricules et, grâce à sa conduction lente, génère un délai entre les contractions auriculaire et ventriculaire permettant d’optimiser le pompage sanguin. Sa conduction lente et sa longue période réfractaire font du nœud AV un filtre d’impulsions auriculaires lors de tachyarythmies assurant ainsi une fréquence ventriculaire plus lente favorable au débit cardiaque. L’optimisation de ce filtrage est une cible dans le traitement de ces arythmies. Malgré ce rôle vital et de nombreuses études, le nœud AV demeure l’objet de plusieurs controverses qui en rendent la compréhension laborieuse. Nos études expérimentales sur des préparations isolées de cœurs de lapin visent à apporter des solutions à certains des problèmes qui limitent la compréhension des propriétés fréquentielles du nœud AV. Le premier problème concerne la définition de la propriété de récupération nodale. On s’accorde généralement sur la dépendance du temps de conduction nodale (intervalle auriculo-Hissien, AH) du temps de récupération qui le précède mais un débat presque centenaire persiste sur la façon de mesurer ce temps de récupération. Selon que l’on utilise à cette fin la longueur du cycle auriculaire (AA) ou l’intervalle His-auriculaire précédent (HA), la même réponse nodale montre des caractéristiques différentes, un paradoxe à ce jour inexpliqué. Le temps de conduction nodale augmente aussi avec le degré et la durée d'une fréquence rapide, un phénomène appelé fatigue. Or, les caractéristiques de la fatigue mesurée varient avec l’indice de récupération utilisé (AA vs. HA). De plus, une troisième propriété appelée facilitation qui entraîne un raccourcissement du temps de conduction diffère aussi avec l’indice de récupération utilisé. Pour établir l’origine de ce problème, nous avons déterminé les différences entre les courbes de récupération (AH compilé en fonction du AA ou HA) pour 30 états fonctionnels nodaux différents. Ces conditions étaient obtenues à l’aide de protocoles permettant la variation du cycle de base (BCL) et du cycle prétest (PTCL), deux paramètres connus pour altérer la fonction nodale. Nous avons pu établir que pour chaque état fonctionnel, la forme de la courbe de récupération et le niveau de fatigue étaient les mêmes pour les deux indices de récupération. Ceci s’applique aussi aux données obtenues à des BCL et PTCL égaux comme dans les protocoles de stimulation prématurée conventionnels couramment utilisés. Nos résultats ont établi pour la première fois que les propriétés nodales de récupération et de fatigue sont indépendantes de l’indice de récupération utilisé. Nos données montrent aussi que les différences entre les courbes de récupération en fonction de l’indice utilisé proviennent d’effets associés aux variations du PTCL. Notre deuxième étude établit à partir des mêmes données pourquoi les variations du PTCL altèrent différemment les courbes de récupération selon l’indice utilisé. Nous avons démontré que ces différences augmentaient en proportion directe avec l’augmentation du temps de conduction au battement prétest. Cette augmentation cause un déplacement systématique de la courbe construite avec l’intervalle AA vers la droite et de celle construite avec l’intervalle HA vers la gauche. Ce résultat met en évidence l’importance de tenir compte des changements du temps de conduction prétest dans l’évaluation de la fonction nodale, un paramètre négligé dans la plupart des études. Ce résultat montre aussi que chacun des deux indices a des limites dans sa capacité d’évaluer le temps de récupération nodale réel lorsque le temps de conduction prétest varie. Lorsque ces limites sont ignorées, comme c’est habituellement le cas, elles entraînent un biais dans l’évaluation des effets de fatigue et de facilitation. Une autre grande difficulté dans l’évaluation des propriétés fréquentielles du nœud AV concerne son état réfractaire. Deux indices sont utilisés pour évaluer la durée de la période réfractaire nodale. Le premier est la période réfractaire efficace (ERPN) définie comme l’intervalle AA le plus long qui n’est pas conduit par le nœud. Le deuxième est la période réfractaire fonctionnelle (FRPN) qui correspond à l’intervalle minimum entre deux activations mesurées à la sortie du nœud. Paradoxalement et pour des raisons obscures, l’ERPN augmente alors que la FRPN diminue avec l’augmentation de la fréquence cardiaque. De plus, ces effets varient grandement avec les sujets, les espèces et l’âge. À partir des mêmes données que pour les deux autres études, nous avons cherché dans la troisième étude l’origine des variations fréquentielles de l’ERPN et de la FRPN. Le raccourcissement du BCL prolonge l’ERPN mais n’affecte pas la FRPN. L’allongement de l’ERPN provient principalement d’un allongement du temps de conduction prétest. Un PTCL court en comparaison avec un BCL court allonge encore plus substantiellement le temps de conduction prétest mais raccourcit en même temps l’intervalle His-auriculaire, ces deux effets opposés s’additionnent pour produire un allongement net de l’ERPN. Le raccourcissement de l’intervalle His-auriculaire par le PTCL court est aussi entièrement responsable pour le raccourcissement de la FRPN. Nous avons aussi établi que, lorsque la composante du temps de conduction prétest est retirée de l’ERPN, un lien linéaire existe entre la FRPN et l’ERPN à cause de leur dépendance commune de l’intervalle His-auriculaire. Le raccourcissement combiné du BCL et du PTCL produit des effets nets prévisibles à partir de leurs effets individuels. Ces effets reproduisent ceux obtenus lors de protocoles prématurés conventionnels. Ces observations supportent un nouveau schème fonctionnel des variations fréquentielles de l’ERPN et de la FRPN à partir des effets distincts du BCL et du PTCL. Elles établissent aussi un nouveau lien entre les variations fréquentielles de l’ERPN et de la FRPN. En conclusion, la modulation fréquentielle de la fonction du nœud AV provient de la combinaison d’effets concurrents cumulatifs liés au cycle de base et non-cumulatifs liés au cycle prétest. Ces effets peuvent être interprétés de façon consistante indépendamment de l’indice de récupération en tenant compte des changements du temps de conduction au battement prétest. Les effets fréquentiels disparates sur l’ERPN et la FRPN sont aussi grandement liés aux changements du temps de conduction prétest. Lorsque l’analyse tient compte de ce facteur, l’ERPN et la FRPN montrent des variations parallèles fortement liées à celles de l’intervalle His-auriculaire. Le nouveau schème fonctionnel des propriétés fréquentielles du nœud AV supporté par nos données aidera à mieux cibler les études sur les mécanismes cellulaires contrôlant la modulation fréquentielle nodale. Nos données pourraient aider à l’interprétation et au contrôle des réponses nodales diverses associées aux tachyarythmies supraventriculaires et à leur traitement pharmacologique. En bref, nos travaux supportent une compréhension factuelle améliorée du comportement fréquentiel du nœud AV, un domaine aux applications multiples en rythmologie cardiaque.

Efeitos do Butorfanol na concentração anestésica mínima do Sevofluorano em galinhas d'angola (Numida meleagris)

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol in sevoflurane-anesthetized guineafowl (Numida meleagris)

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Acute adenosine increases cardiac vagal and reduces sympathetic efferent nerve activities in rats

Adenosine is the first drug of choice in the treatment of supraventricular arrhythmias. While the effects of adenosine on sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) have been investigated, no information is available on the effects on cardiac vagal nerve activity (VNA). We assessed in rats the responses of cardiac VNA, SNA and cardiovascular variables to intravenous bolus administration of adenosine. In 34 urethane-anaesthetized rats, cardiac VNA or cervical preganglionic sympathetic fibres were recorded together with ECG, arterial pressure and ventilation, before and after administration of three doses of adenosine (100, 500 and 1000 mu g kg-1). The effects of adenosine were also assessed in isolated perfused hearts (n= 5). Adenosine induced marked bradycardia and hypotension, associated with a significant dose-dependent increase in VNA (+204 +/- 56%, P < 0.01; +275 +/- 120%, P < 0.01; and +372 +/- 78%, P < 0.01, for the three doses, respectively; n= 7). Muscarinic blockade by atropine (5 mg kg-1, i.v.) significantly blunted the adenosine-induced bradycardia (-56.0 +/- 4.5%, P < 0.05; -86.2 +/- 10.5%, P < 0.01; and -34.3 +/- 9.7%, P < 0.01, respectively). Likewise, adenosine-induced bradycardia was markedly less in isolated heart preparations. Previous barodenervation did not modify the effects of adenosine on VNA. On the SNA side, adenosine administration was associated with a dose-dependent biphasic response, including overactivation in the first few seconds followed by a later profound SNA reduction. Earliest sympathetic activation was abolished by barodenervation, while subsequent sympathetic withdrawal was affected neither by baro- nor by chemodenervation. This is the first demonstration that acute adenosine is able to activate cardiac VNA, possibly through a central action. This increase in vagal outflow could make an important contribution to the antiarrhythmic action of this substance.

Considerations for prenatal counselling of patients with cardiac rhabdomyomas based on their cardiac and neurologic outcomes

Cardiac rhabdomyomas are benign cardiac tumours with few cardiac complications, but with a known association to tuberous sclerosis that affects the neurologic outcome of the patients. We have analysed the long-term cardiac and neurological outcomes of patients with cardiac rhabdomyomas in order to allow comprehensive prenatal counselling, basing our findings on the records of all patients seen prenatally and postnatally with an echocardiographic diagnosis of cardiac rhabdomyoma encountered from August, 1982, to September, 2007. We analysed factors such as the number and the location of the tumours to establish their association with a diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis, predicting the cardiac and neurologic outcomes for the patients.Cardiac complications include arrhythmias, obstruction of the ventricular outflow tracts, and secondary cardiogenic shock. Arrhythmias were encountered most often during the neonatal period, with supraventricular tachycardia being the commonest rhythm disturbance identified. No specific dimension or location of the cardiac rhabdomyomas predicted the disturbances of rhythm.The importance of the diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis is exemplified by the neurodevelopmental complications, with four-fifths of the patients showing epilepsy, and two-thirds having delayed development. The presence of multiple cardiac tumours suggested a higher risk of being affected by tuberous sclerosis. The tumours generally regress after birth, and cardiac-related problems are rare after the perinatal period. Tuberous sclerosis and the associated neurodevelopmental complications dominate the clinical picture, and should form an important aspect of the prenatal counselling of parents.

Pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapy for arrhythmias in the pediatric population: EHRA and AEPC-Arrhythmia Working Group joint consensus statement

In children with structurally normal hearts, the mechanisms of arrhythmias are usually the same as in the adult patient. Some arrhythmias are particularly associated with young age and very rarely seen in adult patients. Arrhythmias in structural heart disease may be associated either with the underlying abnormality or result from surgical intervention. Chronic haemodynamic stress of congenital heart disease (CHD) might create an electrophysiological and anatomic substrate highly favourable for re-entrant arrhythmias. As a general rule, prescription of antiarrhythmic drugs requires a clear diagnosis with electrocardiographic documentation of a given arrhythmia. Risk-benefit analysis of drug therapy should be considered when facing an arrhythmia in a child. Prophylactic antiarrhythmic drug therapy is given only to protect the child from recurrent supraventricular tachycardia during this time span until the disease will eventually cease spontaneously. In the last decades, radiofrequency catheter ablation is progressively used as curative therapy for tachyarrhythmias in children and patients with or without CHD. Even in young children, procedures can be performed with high success rates and low complication rates as shown by several retrospective and prospective paediatric multi-centre studies. Three-dimensional mapping and non-fluoroscopic navigation techniques and enhanced catheter technology have further improved safety and efficacy even in CHD patients with complex arrhythmias. During last decades, cardiac devices (pacemakers and implantable cardiac defibrillator) have developed rapidly. The pacing generator size has diminished and the pacing leads have become progressively thinner. These developments have made application of cardiac pacing in children easier although no dedicated paediatric pacing systems exist.