Patterning soft matter for cell culturing

In the search to understand the interaction between cells and their underlying substrates, life sciences are beginning to incorporate micro and nano-technology based tools to probe, measure and improve cellular behavior. In this frame, patterned surfaces provide a platform for highly defined cellular interactions and, in perspective, they offer unique advantages for artificial implants. For these reasons, functionalized materials have recently become a central topic in tissue engineering. Nanotechnology, with its rich toolbox of techniques, can be the leading actor in the materials patterning field. Laser assisted methods, conventional and un-conventional lithography and other patterning techniques, allow the fabrication of functional supports with tunable properties, either physically, or topographically and chemically. Among them, soft lithography provides an effective (and low cost) strategy for manufacturing micro and nanostructures. The main focus of this work is the use of different fabrication approaches aiming at a precise control of cell behavior, adhesion, proliferation and differentiation, through chemically and spatially designed surfaces.

Rapid prototyping of polymeric electrophoresis microchips with integrated copper electrodes for contactless conductivity detection

A simple and easy approach to produce polymeric microchips with integrated copper electrodes for capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (CD) is described. Copper electrodes were fabricated using a printed circuit board (PCB) as an inexpensive thin-layer of metal. The electrode layout was first drawn and laser printed on a wax paper sheet. The toner layer deposited on the paper sheet was thermally transferred to the PCB surface working as a mask for wet chemical etching of the copper layer. After the etching step, the toner was removed with an acetonitrile-dampened cotton. A poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) film coated with a thin thermo-sensitive adhesive layer was used to laminate the PCB plate providing an insulator layer of the electrodes to perform CID measurements. Electrophoresis microchannels were fabricated in poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) by soft lithography and reversibly sealed against the PET film. These hybrid PDMS/PET chips exhibited a stable electroosmotic mobility of 4.25 +/- 0.04 x 10(-4) V cm(-2) s(-1), at pH 6.1, over fifty runs. Efficiencies ranging from 1127 to 1690 theoretical plates were obtained for inorganic cations.

Mesoporous dye-doped titanium dioxide for micro-optoelectronic applications

Optically transparent, mesostructured titanium dioxide thin films were fabricated using an amphiphilic poly(alkylene oxide) block copolymer template in combination with retarded hydrolysis of a titanium isopropoxide precursor. Prior to calcination, the films displayed a stable hexagonal mesophase and high refractive indices (1.5 to 1.6) relative to mesostructured silica (1.43). After calcination, the hexagonal mesophase was retained with surface areas >300 m2 g-1. The dye Rhodamine 6G (commonly used as a laser dye) was incorporated into the copolymer micelle during the templating process. In this way, novel dye-doped mesostructured titanium dioxide films were synthesised. The copolymer not only directs the film structure, but also provides a solubilizing environment suitable for sustaining a high monomer-to-aggregate ratio at elevated dye concentrations. The dye-doped films displayed optical thresholdlike behaviour characteristic of amplified spontaneous emission. Soft lithography was successfully applied to micropattern the dye-doped films. These results pave the way for the fabrication and demonstration of novel microlaser structures and other active optical structures. This new, high-refractive index, mesostructured, dye-doped material could also find applications in areas such as optical coatings, displays and integrated photonic devices.

Non-linear mechanical behavior of the elastomer polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) used in the manufacture of microfluidic devices

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is the elastomer of choice to create a variety of microfluidic devices by soft lithography techniques (eg., [1], [2], [3], [4]). Accurate and reliable design, manufacture, and operation of microfluidic devices made from PDMS, require a detailed characterization of the deformation and failure behavior of the material. This paper discusses progress in a recently-initiated research project towards this goal. We have conducted large-deformation tension and compression experiments on traditional macroscale specimens, as well as microscale tension experiments on thin-film (≈ 50µm thickness) specimens of PDMS with varying ratios of monomer:curing agent (5:1, 10:1, 20:1). We find that the stress-stretch response of these materials shows significant variability, even for nominally identically prepared specimens. A non-linear, large-deformation rubber-elasticity model [5], [6] is applied to represent the behavior of PDMS. The constitutive model has been implemented in a finite-element program [7] to aid the design of microfluidic devices made from this material. As a first attempt towards the goal of estimating the non-linear material parameters for PDMS from indentation experiments, we have conducted micro-indentation experiments using a spherical indenter-tip, and carried out corresponding numerical simulations to verify how well the numerically-predicted P(load-h(depth of indentation) curves compare with the corresponding experimental measurements. The results are encouraging, and show the possibility of estimating the material parameters for PDMS from relatively simple micro-indentation experiments, and corresponding numerical simulations.

The Inertio-Elastic Planar Entry Flow of Low-Viscosity Elastic Fluids in Micro-fabricated Geometries

The non-Newtonian flow of dilute aqueous polyethylene oxide (PEO) solutions through microfabricated planar abrupt contraction-expansions is investigated. The contraction geometries are fabricated from a high-resolution chrome mask and cross-linked PDMS gels using the tools of soft-lithography. The small length scales and high deformation rates in the contraction throat lead to significant extensional flow effects even with dilute polymer solutions having time constants on the order of milliseconds. The dimensionless extra pressure drop across the contraction increases by more than 200% and is accompanied by significant upstream vortex growth. Streak photography and videomicroscopy using epifluorescent particles shows that the flow ultimately becomes unstable and three-dimensional. The moderate Reynolds numbers (0.03 ≤ Re ≤ 44) associated with these high Deborah number (0 ≤ De ≤ 600) microfluidic flows results in the exploration of new regions of the Re-De parameter space in which the effects of both elasticity and inertia can be observed. Understanding such interactions will be increasingly important in microfluidic applications involving complex fluids and can best be interpreted in terms of the elasticity number, El = De/Re, which is independent of the flow kinematics and depends only on the fluid rheology and the characteristic size of the device.

Microfluidic device and interfacial transport: application to biomolecules and nanostructures

The aim of my dissertation is to provide new knowledge and applications of microfluidics in a variety of problems, from materials science, devices, and biomedicine, where the control on the fluid dynamics and the local concentration of the solutions containing the relevant molecules (either materials, precursors, or biomolecules) is crucial. The control of interfacial phenomena occurring in solutions at dierent length scales is compelling in nanotechnology for devising new sensors, molecular electronics devices, memories. Microfluidic devices were fabricated and integrated with organic electronics devices. The transduction involves the species in the solution which infills the transistor channel and confined by the microfluidic device. This device measures what happens on the surface, at few nanometers from the semiconductor channel. Soft-lithography was adopted to fabricate platinum electrodes, starting from platinum carbonyl precursor. I proposed a simple method to assemble these nanostructures in periodic arrays of microstripes, and form conductive electrodes with characteristic dimension of 600 nm. The conductivity of these sub-microwires is compared with the values reported in literature and bulk platinum. The process is suitable for fabricating thin conductive patterns for electronic devices or electrochemical cells, where the periodicity of the conductive pattern is comparable with the diusion length of the molecules in solution. The ordering induced among artificial nanostructures is of particular interest in science. I show that large building blocks, like carbon nanotubes or core-shell nanoparticles, can be ordered and self-organised on a surface in patterns due to capillary forces. The eective probability of inducing order with microfluidic flow is modeled with finite element calculation on the real geometry of the microcapillaries, in soft-lithographic process. The oligomerization of A40 peptide in microconfined environment represents a new investigation of the extensively studied peptide aggregation. The added value of the approach I devised is the precise control on the local concentration of peptides together with the possibility to mimick cellular crowding. Four populations of oligomers where distinguished, with diameters ranging from 15 to 200 nm. These aggregates could not be addresses separately in fluorescence. The statistical analysis on the atomic force microscopy images together with a model of growth reveal new insights on the kinetics of amyloidogenesis as well as allows me to identify the minimum stable nucleus size. This is an important result owing to its implications in the understanding and early diagnosis and therapy of the Alzheimer’s disease

Kontaktmechanik und Strukturierung von festkörperunterstützen Lipidmembranen

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt unter anderem die Realisierung eines Assays aus mikrostrukturierten und selektiv funktionalisierten künstlichen Membransegmenten auf einem Chip. Die Strukturierungsmethode kombiniert die softlithographische Technik des Mikroformens in Kapillaren mit der Vesikelspreittechnik und bietet ein elegantes Verfahren, einzeln adressierbare Lipidsegmente im Mikrometer Regime zu erzeugen. Unter Berücksichtigung des hydrodynamischen Fließverhaltens und der Stabilitätskriterien für PDMS-Elastomere wurden außerdem neue Strukturen entwi-ckelt, die für den kombinierten Einsatz von Rasterkraftmikroskopie und Fluoreszenz-mikroskopie optimiert sind. Die Anwendbarkeit des Lab-On-A-Chip-Devices als Bio-sensor wurde durch zwei prominente Protein-Rezeptor-Bindungsstudien fluores-zenzmikroskopisch und rasterkraftmikroskopisch belegt. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit sind die mechanischen und adhäsiven Eigenschaften aus-gewählter Lipidsysteme mit einer neuen Charakterisierungstechnik untersucht wor-den, die die Kontaktmechanik von Rastersonden und Lipidmembranen auf Basis der Digitalisierung von Hochgeschwindigkeitskraftkurven und einer automatisierten Multi-parameteranalyse quantitativ erfasst. Dabei konnte die Korrelation zwischen der Ad-häsion und den materialspezifischen Durchbruchlängen und Durchbruchkräften, die charakteristische Stabilitätsparameter der Lipidmembran darstellen, auf Systemen mit variierenden Kopfgruppen und Kettenlängen analysiert werden. Das Verfahren erlaubte zudem die simultane Quantifizierung der elastischen Eigenschaften der Li-piddoppelschichten. Zu den Kraftkurven wurden Simulationen der Systemantwort durchgeführt, die ein tieferes Verständnis der Kontrastentstehung ermöglichen.

Untersuchung des Reorientierungsverhaltens und Strukturierung dünner amphiphiler Blockcopolymerfilme zum Aufbau von Kompositen

Grundlage für die hier gezeigte Arbeit stellt die Eigenschaft von amphiphilen Blockcopolymeren dar immer den Block mit der niedrigsten Grenzflächenenergie zum angrenzenden Medium an die Oberfläche zu bringen. Durch einen Austausch des Mediums an der Grenzfläche zum Blockcopolymer kann eine Reorientierung erzwungen werden, wenn die Grenzflächenenergie des anderen Blocks nun die niedrigere Grenzflächenenergie besitzt. Dieses Verhalten von dünnen amphiphilen Blockcopolymerfilmen wurde zur Strukturierung von Oberflächen ausgenutzt und in nachfolgenden Synthesen weiter verstärkt. Um dies zu erreichen wurde das zur Strukturierung erforderliche Poly(4-Octylstyrol)block(4-hydroxystyrol) durch kontrollierte radikalische Polymerisationsmethode mit dem Tempo Unimer (2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-1-1(1-phenyl-ethoxy)-piperidin) synthetisiert. Für die geplanten Reorientierungen und Modifizierungen von Oberflächen wurden dünne Filme durch Schleuderbeschichtung auf verschiedenen Substraten (Siliziumwafern, Glassubstraten und Goldoberflächen) hergestellt. Das Verhalten der Oberflächen von diesen Filmen wurde durch Kontaktwinkelmessungen untersucht. Auf diese Weise konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Oberfläche von Polymerfilmen nach der Präparation aus dem hydrophoben Block des Polymers gebildet wird. Durch Kontakt des Polymerfilms mit Wasser kann dieser zur Reorientierung gebracht werden, so dass der hydrophile Block des Polymers an der Oberfläche erscheint. Dieses Verhalten wurde zur Strukturierung mit softlithographischen Techniken genutzt. Dazu wurden hydrophil/hydrophob strukturierte Oberflächen durch Aufsetzen von hydrophoben PDMS-Stempeln, die Teile der Oberfläche selektiv abdeckten, und Einbringen von Wasser in die dabei entstehenden Kapillaren hergestellt. Dies ermöglichte es die Oberfläche selektiv im Größenbereich von 500nm bis zu 50µm zu strukturieren und an den reaktiven Bereichen Materialien, wie z.B. Kupfer, Titandioxid, Polyelektrolyte, photonische Kristalle und angegraftete Polymere, mit verschiedenen Methoden selektiv auf die Oberfläche aufzubringen. Um den Reorganisationsprozess der Oberfläche genauer zu studieren, wurde ein für diese Aufgabe besser geeignetes Polymer (Poly(Styrol)-block-poly(essigsäure-2-(2-(4-vinyl-phenoxy)-ethoxy)ethylester)) synthetisiert. Aus diesem Blockcopolymer wurden wieder dünne Filme durch Spincoaten hergestellt. Die Reorientierung dieses Polymers in 70°C warmen Wasser konnte durch Kontaktwinkelmessungen und NEXAFS Spektroskopie nachgewiesen werden. Mit Hilfe der NEXAFS Spektroskopie konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Geschwindigkeit der Reorientierung durch eine exponentielle Funktion beschrieben werden kann. Eine Auswertung der Geschwindigkeitskonstante für die Reorientierung einer hydrophilen zu einer hydrophoben Oberfläche des Polymers bei 60°C führt zu =75min. Aufgrund des exponentiellen Charakters der Reorientierung macht es den Anschein, dass die Reorientierung bei verschiedenen Reorientierungstemperaturen bis zu einem gewissen Grad erfolgt und dann stoppt. Eine weitere Reorientierung scheint erst wieder bei einer Temperaturerhöhung zu beginnen. Aus AFM Messungen ist ein Beginnen der Reorientierung durch Bildung kleiner Löcher in der Polymeroberfläche zu erkennen, die sich zu runden Erhöhungen und Vertiefungen vergrößern, um letztendlich in ein spinodales Entmischungsmuster über zu gehen. Dieses heilt dann im Laufe der Zeit langsam durch Verschwinden der hydrophilen Bereiche langsam aus. Der Beginn des zuvor beschriebenen Reorientierungsprozesses einer hydrophilen Oberfläche in eine hydrophobe konnte sowohl in den AFM, als auch in den NEXAFS-Messungen zu ca. 50°C bestimmt werden.

Design and fabrication of biocompatible scaffolds for the regeneration of tissues

Regenerative medicine and tissue engineering attempt to repair or improve the biological functions of tissues that have been damaged or have ceased to perform their role through three main components: a biocompatible scaffold, cellular component and bioactive molecules. Nanotechnology provide a toolbox of innovative scaffold fabrication procedures in regenerative medicine. In fact, nanotechnology, using manufacturing techniques such as conventional and unconventional lithography, allows fabricating supports with different geometries and sizes as well as displaying physical chemical properties tunable over different length scales. Soft lithography techniques allow to functionalize the support by specific molecules that promote adhesion and control the growth of cells. Understanding cell response to scaffold, and viceversa, is a key issue; here we show our investigation of the essential features required for improving the cell-surface interaction over different scale lengths. The main goal of this thesis has been to devise a nanotechnology-based strategy for the fabrication of scaffolds for tissue regeneration. We made four types of scaffolds, which are able to accurately control cell adhesion and proliferation. For each scaffold, we chose properly designed materials, fabrication and characterization techniques.

Lung on Chip: In vitro HGF effects on injured alveolar A549 epithelial cells in microfluidic system

Microfluidic systems have become competitive tools in the invitro modelling of diseases and promising alternatives to animal studies. They allow obtaining more invivo like conditions for cellular assays. Research in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis could benefit from this novel methodological approach to understand the pathophysiology of the disease & develop efficient therapies. The use of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) for alveolar reepithelisation is a promising approach. In this study, we show a new microfluidic system to analyse the effects of HGF on injured alveolar epithelial cells. Microfluidic systems in polydimethylsiloxane were fabricated by soft lithography. The alveolar A549 epithelial cells (10,000 cells) were seeded and studied in these microfluidic systems with media perfusion (1μl/30min). Injury tests were made on the cells by the perfusion with media containing H2O2 or bleomycin. The degree of injury was then assessed by a metabolic and an apoptotic assays. Wound assays were also performed with a central laminar flow of trypsin. Monitoring of wound closure with HGF vs control media was assessed. The alveolar A549 epithelial cells grew and proliferated in the microfluidic system. In the wound closure assay, the degree of wound closure after 5 hours was (53.3±1.3%) with HGF compared to (9.8±2.4%) without HGF (P <0.001). We present a novel microfluidic model that allows culture, injury and wounding of A549 epithelial cells and represents the first step towards the development of an invitro reconstitution of the alveolar-capillary interface. We were also able to confirm that HGF increased alveolar epithelial repair in this system.

Lung on a chip: Co-culture of alveolar epithelial cells and bone marrow derived stromal stem cells in a microfluidic system

Background: Microfluidics system are novel tools to study cell-cell interactions in vitro. This project focuses on the development of a new microfluidic device to co-culture alveolar epithelial cells and mesenchymal stem cells to study cellular interactions involved in healing the injured alveolar epithelium. Methods: Microfluidic systems in polydimethylsiloxane were fabricated by soft lithography. The alveolar A549 epithelial cells were seeded and injury tests were made on the cells by perfusion with media containing H2O2 or bleomycin during 6 or 18hrs. Rat Bone marrow derived stromal cells (BMSC) were then introduced into the system and cell-cell interaction was studied over 24 hrs. Results: A successful co-culture of A549 alveolar epithelial cells and BMS was achieved in the microfluidic system. The seeded alveolar epithelial cells and BMSC adhered to the bottom surface of the microfluidic device and proliferated under constant perfusion. Epithelial injury to mimic mechanisms seen in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis was induced in the microchannels by perfusing with H2O2 or bleomycin. Migration of BMSC towards the injured epithelium was observed as well as cell-cell interaction between the two cell types was also seen. Conclusion: We demonstrate a novel microfluidic device aimed at showing interactions between different cell types on the basis of a changing microenvironment. Also we were able to confirm interaction between injured alvolar epithelium and BMSC, and showed that BMSC try to heal the injured epitelium.

Fabrication of a Large, Ordered, Three-Dimensional Nanocup Array

Metallic nanocups provide a unique method for redirecting scattered light by creating magnetic plasmon responses at optical frequencies. Despite considerable development of nanocup fabrication processes, simultaneously achieving accurate control over the placement, orientation, and geometry of nanocups has remained a significant challenge. Here we present a technique for fabricating large, periodically ordered arrays of uniformly oriented three-dimensional gold nanocups for manipulating light at subwavelength scales. Nanoimprint lithography, soft lithography, and shadow evaporation were used to fabricate nanocups onto the tips of polydimethylsiloxane nanopillars with precise control over the shapes and optical properties of asymmetric nanocups.

Improving the Manufacturability of Active Microfluidic Devices using Stereolithography (SL)

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy of rhodamine 6G in titanium dioxide nanocomposites

A comparison has been made between the spectroscopic properties of the laser dye rhodamine 6G (R6G) in mesostructured titanium dioxide (TiO2) and in ethanol. Steady-state excitation and emission techniques have been used to probe the dye-matrix interactions. We show that the TiO2-nanocomposite studied is a good host for R6G, as it allows high dye concentrations, while keeping dye molecules isolated, and preventing aggregation. Our findings have important implications in the context of solid state dye-lasers and microphotonic device applications. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Optical fiber sensors embedded in flexible polymer foils

In traditional electrical sensing applications, multiplexing and interconnecting the different sensing elements is a major challenge. Recently, many optical alternatives have been investigated including optical fiber sensors of which the sensing elements consist of fiber Bragg gratings. Different sensing points can be integrated in one optical fiber solving the interconnection problem and avoiding any electromagnetical interference (EMI). Many new sensing applications also require flexible or stretchable sensing foils which can be attached to or wrapped around irregularly shaped objects such as robot fingers and car bumpers or which can even be applied in biomedical applications where a sensor is fixed on a human body. The use of these optical sensors however always implies the use of a light-source, detectors and electronic circuitry to be coupled and integrated with these sensors. The coupling of these fibers with these light sources and detectors is a critical packaging problem and as it is well-known the costs for packaging, especially with optoelectronic components and fiber alignment issues are huge. The end goal of this embedded sensor is to create a flexible optical sensor integrated with (opto)electronic modules and control circuitry. To obtain this flexibility, one can embed the optical sensors and the driving optoelectronics in a stretchable polymer host material. In this article different embedding techniques for optical fiber sensors are described and characterized. Initial tests based on standard manufacturing processes such as molding and laser structuring are reported as well as a more advanced embedding technique based on soft lithography processing.